1 Kings 1
Book of 1 Kings — Quick facts:Purpose: To outline the glory of Solomon’s reign, the division of the kingdom, and the degradation of Israel
Author: Unknown
Date: Records events that occurred around 973–853 BC
Setting: Begins at the high point of the Israelite monarchy (Solomon’s reign) and ends with a divided kingdom and a low point in the Israelite monarchy (Ahab’s reign)
Book of Kings — Overview:
Setting
At the height of his power, Solomon administered a kingdom that stretched “from the Euphrates River in the north to the land of the Philistines and the border of Egypt in the south” (4:21 a). Solomon’s power and wealth brought him in contact with many surrounding nations—especially the important maritime city-state of Tyre and the age-old empire of Egypt.
The mid-900s BC was an ideal time for Solomon’s kingdom to expand, for the traditional political powers of the area were in decline. The strong Hittite kingdom to the north had broken up into a number of small states. In Mesopotamia, years of struggle with the Arameans and the Hittites had weakened Assyria, which remained weak until the accession of Ashur-dan II (934–912 BC). In the south, Egypt’s presence in Canaan had weakened during the 21st dynasty (1069–945 BC). Egypt would not make an effective military comeback until the rule of the 22nd dynasty pharaoh Shoshenq I (Shishak, 945–924 BC).
Unfortunately, Solomon’s foreign diplomacy involved marriages with the daughters of foreign kings. This was a common way to cement alliances in the ancient Near East, but it was spiritually disastrous, for “in Solomon’s old age, they turned his heart to worship other gods instead of being completely faithful to the Lord his God” (11:4 b).
Tensions that had been smoldering between the northern and southern Hebrew tribes surfaced with Solomon’s death in 931 BC. The resulting schism restructured the kingdom into Israel (the northern ten tribes) and Judah (the remaining two southern tribes). Israel and Judah skirmished repeatedly during the era of the first two northern dynasties and the reigns of Judah’s first three kings (931~874 BC). The hostility subsided when King Ahab of Israel and King Jehoshaphat of Judah found a common cause against the Arameans (chs 20 c, 22 d).
The Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah were increasingly entangled by the expansionist ambitions of their neighbors. They were invaded by Shoshenq I of Egypt in 926 BC, and throughout the 800s BC they faced the constant menace of the Arameans and the rising power of Assyria. During the reigns of the Assyrian kings Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) and Shalmaneser III (858–824 BC), Assyrian troops moved steadily westward to the Mediterranean Sea. At the famous Battle of Qarqar (853 BC), a coalition of western allies, including Israel’s King Ahab, withstood the Assyrian king Shalmaneser and temporarily sidetracked Assyria’s advance.
During this time, the two Hebrew kingdoms struggled spiritually. Israel stopped worshiping the Lord at Solomon’s Temple, and Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–910 BC), instituted apostate religious practices that led the northern kingdom astray (see 2 Kgs 17:21-23 e). Judah’s first two kings, Rehoboam and Abijah, lapsed spiritually, while the subsequent two kings, Asa and Jehoshaphat, maintained greater, though not perfect, spiritual fidelity (1 Kgs 15:11 f; 22:43 g).
Summary
Beginning with King David’s last days, 1 Kings describes the establishment of Solomon’s glorious empire (971–931 BC) and the events that subsequently divided the kingdom in two (the kingdom of Israel in the north and the kingdom of Judah in the south). The book then traces the varying fortunes of the two kingdoms to about 853 BC, into the reign of Ahaziah in Israel (853–852 BC).
The first eleven chapters center on King Solomon, recounting both his fabulous reign and his later spiritual compromise. Solomon’s story begins and ends in controversy. Solomon was David’s chosen successor, but his older brother Adonijah attempted to seize the throne (1:1–2:46 h). Solomon triumphed over Adonijah’s rival claim, then used his God-given wisdom to reorganize the government and make it more efficient. He facilitated the kingdom’s commercial expansion on land and sea and undertook extensive building projects, including the marvelous Temple and the palace complex. Toward the end of his reign, however, Solomon’s spiritual decline (11:1-13 i) and oppressive administrative measures (e.g., 5:13-18 j) incited political adversaries both inside and outside the country (11:14-40 k).
God appeared three times to Solomon, giving us a glimpse of his personal spiritual journey. The first time, early in Solomon’s reign, God granted his request for wisdom to rule the kingdom (3:5-15 l), which resulted in great prosperity and honor (3:16–8:66 m). After Solomon finished building the Temple and palace, God visited him a second time to remind him that his continued success would depend on spiritual fidelity (9:1-9 n). However, Solomon’s great fame (9:10–10:29 o) led him into foreign alliances, cemented by customary marriages with the daughters of foreign kings. Solomon’s resulting spiritual compromise eventually led him so far as to sponsor the worship of pagan deities (11:1-8 p). God visited Solomon a third and final time; this time he rebuked Solomon for his failure to honor the covenant. Solomon’s unfaithfulness would ultimately cause the kingdom’s division after his death (11:9-13 q).
The second section of the book (12:1–16:26 r) demonstrates that God’s judgment came quickly after Solomon’s death. At the beginning of the reign of King Rehoboam, the northern tribes requested relief from forced labor and heavy taxation. Rehoboam rebuffed their request and antagonized them, so the northern tribes rebelled and established the kingdom of Israel in the north, with Jeroboam I as king. Rehoboam remained on the throne of Judah, now a separate kingdom, in the south (12:1-24 s). During the following era, Israel’s first two dynasties (Jeroboam I to Tibni) spiritually degraded the northern kingdom, while the kings of Judah degraded the southern kingdom. Political instability marked the northern kingdom, with royal assassinations, contests for power, and the establishment of Israel’s notorious third dynasty, founded by King Omri, who was one of the most powerful and evil kings of Israel (16:25-26 t).
The final section of 1 Kings is primarily devoted to the reign of Omri’s son Ahab (16:29–22:40 u). Israel had begun worshiping the Canaanite storm-god Baal, so the Lord commissioned Elijah to confront Ahab and to demonstrate the Lord’s power, showing that he alone is God (17:1–18:46 v). Elijah then fled from the wrath of Queen Jezebel, but God reclaimed and recommissioned him, with Elisha as his successor (19:1-21 w).
On the political front, King Ahab faced repeated challenges from the Aramean king Ben-hadad, against whom Ahab fought three campaigns (20:1-25 x, 26-43 y; 22:1-40 z), the last of which cost Ahab his life. Between the second and third campaigns, Ahab, aided by his ruthless wife Jezebel, murdered an innocent man named Naboth and confiscated his property (21:1-29 aa).
God’s prophets figured prominently in the events of Ahab’s reign. In Ahab’s first two campaigns against the Arameans, an unnamed prophet first counseled the king (20:22 ab) and then rebuked him (20:35-43 ac). The prophet Elijah later censured Ahab’s seizure of Naboth’s vineyard (21:1-29 ad). Then, before Ahab’s third battle against the Arameans, the prophet Micaiah warned of Ahab’s impending death (22:5-28 ae).
The book of 1 Kings closes with a brief word concerning the character and reign of Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (22:41-50 af) and introduces Ahab’s successor, Ahaziah (22:51-53 ag), whose story begins 2 Kings.
Authorship and Composition
The books of 1–2 Kings reflect the coherent perspective of a single unknown author, whom Jewish tradition identifies as Jeremiah (Baba Batra 15a). The author witnessed firsthand the fall of Jerusalem and was well acquainted with sources that enabled him to compose a rich history of Solomon’s reign and the divided monarchy. Available to the author were official archives of the palace and Temple and records kept in various prophetic centers. He skillfully weaved these sources into a unified presentation, displaying a central concern regarding his people’s repeated failure to honor their covenant relationship with God.
It is uncertain whether the author was still alive and wrote the final appendix concerning Jehoiachin’s release (561 BC; 2 Kgs 25:27-30 ah; cp. Jer 52:31-34 ai). If not, these verses were appended by someone well acquainted with 1–2 Kings and of a kindred spirit with the primary author.
The books of 1–2 Kings cover essentially the same time period as 2 Chronicles. Accordingly, there are numerous parallel passages with similar wording. But the authors had different purposes in writing, and these differences can be highlighted by comparing the various parallel passages.
Date
Because 2 Kings records the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2 Kgs 24:18–25:21 aj), the composition of 1–2 Kings must have been completed afterward.
The dating of the reigns of various kings and the chronological arrangement of 1–2 Kings remain somewhat problematic, but the general dating of the period seems clear. The basic period for 1 Kings stretches from around 973 BC (including approximately the last two years of David’s reign in Jerusalem, 2 Sam 5:4-5 ak) to around 853 BC, during the reigns of Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 BC) and Ahaziah of Israel (853–852 BC). Second Kings picks up where 1 Kings left off (originally, 1–2 Kings was one book). The final appendix to 2 Kings (2 Kgs 25:27-30 al) was written shortly after the death of Nebuchadnezzar II in 562 BC.
Chronology
The dates for the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah are determined by comparing biblical data with information from other sources from the period, including historical annals and records of astronomical phenomena. The data frequently highlights the practice of co-regency, whereby a reigning king designated his son as both heir apparent and co-ruler. This practice was common in both Israel and Judah. Hence, the dating of the various kings is not necessarily sequential, but contains a certain extent of overlap. While ascertaining precise dates across the monarchical period is complex, the remarkable harmony between the records of Assyria, Babylon, Aram, Egypt, and Israel highlights the historical reliability of the biblical records.
Meaning and Message
The primary concern of 1 Kings is Israel’s spiritual condition: How well did Israel’s rulers and people keep God’s covenants? God’s special covenant with David had conditions for blessing Israel’s king and his kingdom (2 Sam 7:12-16 am; Ps 89:20-37 an). God’s three appearances to Solomon highlight the potential for a successful and meaningful spiritual life, as well as the tragic consequences of spiritual infidelity and relying upon expediency. Each succeeding king is evaluated by his faithfulness to God—by his success or failure in keeping God’s covenants.
The book of 1 Kings emphasizes the role of God’s prophets in advising, admonishing, and warning the kings. While particular attention is devoted to Elijah’s ministry (1 Kgs 17:1–19:21 ao; 21:1-29 ap), God also works through other prophets to claim his people’s loyalty.
The spiritual odysseys of Israel’s kings and prophets challenge all of God’s people to faithful devotion and service. Israel’s frequent preference for what is tangible and expedient reminds us to “keep away from anything that might take God’s place in [our] hearts”(1 Jn 5:21 aq). Like the prophets of old, God’s servants today are to proclaim the necessity of worshiping God alone.
Summary for 1Kgs 1:1-2:12: 1:1–2:12 ar The book of 1 Kings opens by emphasizing the continuity of the Lord’s covenant with David (see 2 Sam 7:11-16 as). Solomon was the legitimate and divinely chosen heir to what God had granted his father David. The challenges to Solomon’s succession to the throne (1 Kgs 1:1–2:46 at) foreshadowed challenges to his kingship at the end of his reign (11:1-43 au) and the continuing struggles between Israel and Judah thereafter.
Summary for 1Kgs 1:1-3: 1:1-3 av At seventy years of age (2 Sam 5:4-5 aw), David was feeble, perhaps because of years of warfare and stress. He needed a young person to impart warmth, a medical remedy also described in Josephus’s Antiquities and by the Greek physician Galen. David’s diminishing powers encouraged Adonijah’s attempts to take the throne.
Summary for 1Kgs 1:5-6: 1:5-6 ax Adonijah was David’s fourth son. Because his older brothers, Amnon, Daniel, and Absalom, were all dead, Adonijah assumed he would succeed his father. Yet, in keeping with ancient Near Eastern custom, Solomon—the son of David’s favored wife, Bathsheba—was to succeed him as king. David had already communicated this fact to Solomon (1:13 ay, 17 az; 1 Chr 22:6-10 ba). Adonijah’s self-seeking nature, likely encouraged by his father’s lax discipline, surfaced in his declaration, “I will make myself king.”
1:7 bb Joab, David’s military commander, and Abiathar, the high priest, gave Adonijah powerful military and religious backing in his pursuit of the throne.
1:8 bc Solomon also had influential friends supporting his right to become king. Zadok was in the priestly line of Eleazar, Benaiah commanded David’s bodyguard and his thirty mighty men (2 Sam 23:20-23 bd), Shimei was one of Solomon’s district governors (1 Kgs 4:18 be), and Nathan was David’s trusted prophet. Rei is unknown beyond this verse.
1:9 bf En-rogel (modern Bir Ayyub, “Job’s well”) lay south of Jerusalem at the intersection of the Kidron and Hinnom valleys. Earlier, it harbored David’s two informants, Jonathan and Ahimaaz, during Absalom’s rebellion (see 2 Sam 17:17 bg).
Summary for 1Kgs 1:11-14: 1:11-14 bh Bathsheba was Solomon’s mother and David’s favored wife. Their affair led to the death of Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah the Hittite (see 2 Sam 11:1-27 bi).
• Nathan, the prophet who revealed God’s covenant with David (2 Sam 7:1-17 bj) and announced God’s love for Solomon at his birth (2 Sam 12:24-25 bk), confirmed God’s selection of Solomon to succeed David as king (see 1 Chr 28:4-7 bl). Although Nathan had sharply rebuked David for his affair with Bathsheba and his murder of Uriah (2 Sam 12:1-15 bm), the king respected the prophet.
• Adonijah certainly observed Nathan’s close association with Bathsheba and Solomon. All three could expect to be killed if Adonijah’s plot to seize the throne succeeded (see 1 Kgs 15:29 bn; 16:11 bo).
Summary for 1Kgs 1:28-30: 1:28-30 bp David reassured Bathsheba that Solomon would be the next king by repeating his earlier vow in God’s name (see 1:17 bq).
Summary for 1Kgs 1:31-32: 1:31-32 br David affirmed his pledge by ordering a public display of support by the priestly, prophetic, and military representatives, Zadok, Nathan, and Benaiah.
1:33 bs Riding the king’s own mule was a sign of prestige. In an ancient text from Mari, King Zimri-Lim was advised that royal protocol would be served by his riding in a donkey cart. David’s sons rode mules (2 Sam 13:29 bt; 18:9 bu). Similarly Zechariah predicts that Israel’s king will come “riding on a donkey’s colt” (Zech 9:9 bv), a prophecy fulfilled by Jesus (Matt 21:4-7 bw; John 12:14-15 bx). With Solomon mounted on David’s royal mule, the people would know that Solomon’s anointing as king had David’s blessing.
• The Gihon Spring, just outside Jerusalem’s eastern slopes, was the city’s major water source. In this common gathering place, Solomon’s anointing would be well known, yet not visible to Adonijah’s supporters at En-rogel.
1:34 by Solomon’s anointing followed established protocol in being administered by a prophet (see 1 Sam 16:1-13 bz).
• Priests also played significant roles in royal matters, and the populace would welcome Zadok’s blessing. David later confirmed Solomon’s kingship in a public ceremony (1 Chr 29:22 ca).
1:35 cb sit on my throne: Due to David’s age and infirmities, Solomon officiated publicly for about two years before his father died. Co-regency provided for orderly royal succession and became commonplace during Israel’s divided monarchy. It was also practiced in Egypt.
• The Hebrew term for ruler, used for various leadership positions, can have theological significance; the king was seen as both a spiritual and administrative leader of God’s people (see Deut 31:10-11 cc; 1 Chr 28:4-6 cd; Ps 89:3-4 ce; Isa 55:3-4 cf).
1:38 cg The king’s bodyguard were foreign mercenaries from Crete; they served David throughout his reign (2 Sam 8:18 ch; 15:18 ci; 20:7 cj).
1:39 ck The priest ... anointed Solomon with olive oil. This act, a widely accepted Near Eastern practice, gave the ceremony divine sanction.
Summary for 1Kgs 1:40-41: 1:40-41 cl Those attending Adonijah’s banquet at En-rogel could not see the celebration, but it was so joyously noisy that they could hear it.
Summary for 1Kgs 1:42-49: 1:42-49 cm Solomon was proclaimed as king and warmly welcomed by the people. Adonijah and his followers panicked and fled, aborting the attempted coup.
Summary for 1Kgs 1:50-53: 1:50-53 cn Fearing for his life, Adonijah sought refuge at the horns (projections at the corners) of the altar (Exod 27:2 co), hoping for mercy according to biblical precedent (cp. Exod 21:12-14 cp). However, such protection was provided only for unintentional homicide, so Adonijah’s treason could only be forgiven by the king. Solomon treated him graciously on the condition that he remain loyal. Appearances aside, Adonijah was still looking for ways to usurp the kingship and was later killed as a troublemaker (1 Kgs 2:13-25 cq).
1 Kings 2
Summary for 1Kgs 2:1-12: 2:1-12 cr David gave his final charge to Solomon in two sections: personal advice for spiritual living (2:2-4 cs) and instructions about people David had dealt with (2:5-9 ct).Summary for 1Kgs 2:2-4: 2:2-4 cu David’s advice to Solomon combined the spiritual and ethical standards of Deuteronomy, the standards of the covenant through Moses (see Lev 18:4-5 cv; Deut 5:33 cw; 6:4-5 cx; 8:6 cy; 10:12 cz), and the promises of the covenant with David (2 Sam 7:12-16 da, 25 db). If Solomon would keep God’s standards of righteousness, the promises would be transmitted to his heir, who in turn could claim God’s blessings and convey them to subsequent generations (Ps 89:3-4 dc, 20 dd, 24 de, 27-37 df).
• The preeminent heir of David, the Messiah, would embody true righteousness (Isa 11:1-5 dg), receive the full benefits of the covenant (Jer 33:14-16 dh), and enact a new covenant with the people of Israel and Judah (Jer 31:31-34 di; Ezek 34:24-31 dj; 37:24-28 dk). The New Testament reveals Jesus as that son of David who has come (Matt 1:1 dl; Rom 1:1-4 dm); he will come again to fulfill Old Testament prophecies and bless all people (Luke 1:67-79 dn; Gal 3:26-29 do; Rev 3:21 dp). 2:2 dq Take courage and be a man: God and Moses had given this same charge to Joshua at the time of the conquest (Deut 31:6-7 dr; Josh 1:6-7 ds, 9 dt). Joshua and Hezekiah gave this admonition to Israelite forces when facing enemies (Josh 1:16-18 du; 10:24-28 dv; 2 Chr 32:7 dw). David had learned the value of godly courage (Pss 27:13-14 dx; 31:23-24 dy). When Paul urged Christians to be courageous (literally be men) and strong (1 Cor 16:13 dz), he used the same words as the Greek Old Testament uses for the charges by Moses, Joshua, Hezekiah, and the Lord. An interesting parallel is found in the account of Bishop Polycarp’s martyrdom. As he was led into the stadium facing execution, Polycarp heard a voice from heaven saying, “Be strong, Polycarp, be a man!” (Martyrdom of Polycarp 9:1).
Summary for 1Kgs 2:5-6: 2:5-6 ea Joab had supported David’s bid for kingship but had become too ambitious. He had murdered former military rivals Abner (2 Sam 3:22-30 eb) and Amasa (2 Sam 20:10 ec), as well as David’s son Absalom (2 Sam 18:1-18 ed). A party to David’s murder of Uriah the Hittite (2 Sam 11:14-27 ee), Joab had grown very powerful (2 Sam 20:23 ef), and his backing of Adonijah posed a serious threat to Solomon.
Summary for 1Kgs 2:7-9: 2:7-9 eg Barzillai unwaveringly supported David during his trouble with Absalom, while Shimei openly opposed David (2 Sam 16:5-13 eh; 19:6-23 ei). 2:7 ej at your table: As he had done for Mephibosheth (2 Sam 9:6-13 ek), David provided for Barzillai and his family. This privilege assured their continued loyalty.
2:8 el Mahanaim was David’s refuge during Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sam 17:24 em). The Egyptian pharaoh, Shishak, invaded it during Rehoboam’s reign (see 1 Kgs 14:25 en).
Summary for 1Kgs 2:10-12: 2:10-12 eo David died peacefully after a forty-year reign, knowing that the kingdom was firmly established in Solomon, his designated heir. Various locations have been proposed for David’s tomb, but none has been confirmed (cp. Acts 2:29 ep). Royal tombs were used at least until Hezekiah’s days (2 Kgs 20:21 eq).
Summary for 1Kgs 2:13-15: 2:13-15 er Adonijah contradicted his supposed peaceful intentions when he declared, the kingdom was rightfully mine.
Summary for 1Kgs 2:16-18: 2:16-18 es let me marry Abishag: Possessing the king’s concubine was a mark of royal legitimacy. When David became king, he was given Saul’s wives (2 Sam 12:7-8 et). The rebellious Absalom claimed David’s concubines (2 Sam 16:20-22 eu).
Summary for 1Kgs 2:19-21: 2:19-21 ev Solomon understood the intentions behind Adonijah’s small request. Adonijah’s desire to marry Abishag could have launched a claim to the throne, whether or not she was officially in David’s harem.
Summary for 1Kgs 2:22-25: 2:22-25 ew Because Adonijah violated his terms of submission to Solomon (1:52-53 ex), the king ordered Benaiah (see 1:8 ey, 26 ez, 38 fa) to execute him.
Summary for 1Kgs 2:26-35: 2:26-35 fb Solomon presumed that Adonijah’s chief supporters, Abiathar and Joab, remained involved in Adonijah’s schemes, so Solomon dealt with them as well.
Summary for 1Kgs 2:26-27: 2:26-27 fc Abiathar had treasonously supported Adonijah (1:7 fd, 25 fe). But he was deposed rather than killed because he had carried the Ark (2 Sam 15:24 ff, 29 fg, 35 fh), had supported David, and had shared all his hardships. Abiathar’s removal from the priesthood fulfilled the Lord’s word about the house of Eli in Ithamar’s line (1 Sam 2:30-35 fi). Zadok’s appointment (1 Kgs 4:2 fj) returned the high priesthood to Eleazar’s line as it had been before Eli (Num 20:22-28 fk; 25:11-13 fl; 2 Sam 8:17 fm; 1 Chr 6:1-8 fn, 50-53 fo; Ezra 7:2-5 fp) and as it continued throughout the divided monarchy (2 Chr 31:10 fq; Ezek 43:19 fr).
Summary for 1Kgs 2:28-29: 2:28-29 fs Following Adonijah’s example (1:50 ft), Joab hoped to find mercy by grasping the horns of the altar according to the provisions of the law of Moses (Exod 21:12-14 fu; Num 35:22-25 fv; Deut 19:4-5 fw). But because Joab was a murderer, he could not claim clemency (see 2 Sam 3:27 fx; 18:14 fy; 20:10 fz).
Summary for 1Kgs 2:36-38: 2:36-38 ga The confinement of Shimei prevented him from reaching his kinsmen in Benjamin to stir up trouble for the king.
Summary for 1Kgs 2:39-46: 2:39-46 gb Shimei’s journey to Gath, ostensibly to recover his runaway slaves, violated his agreement. Technically, he did not cross the Kidron Valley in going to Gath, but the penalty was understood by both parties to apply to Shimei’s going anywhere else. Because Shimei violated his oath to the Lord (2:43 gc) and because of his past hostilities toward David (2 Sam 16:5-13 gd; 19:16-23 ge), Solomon instructed Benaiah to execute him.
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