‏ Hosea 4

Summary for Hos 4:1: 4:1–14:9  ^a This diverse collection of Hosea’s prophecies is presented in roughly chronological order, from early in his ministry during the reign of Jeroboam II until just before the destruction of Israel in 722 BC. Hosea presents God’s charges against Israel, tells them of the severe consequences for their sin, and concludes with a divine promise of future restoration. 4:1  ^b The Lord has brought charges against you: Hosea issued a divine indictment against Israel for breaking their covenant with the Lord (see also Isa 3:13  ^c; Mic 6:2  ^d). The charges first focus on sins of omission, the qualities that should characterize the people of Israel but were absent. In Israel there is no faithfulness, no kindness, no knowledge of God. These theologically rich words describe the inward trust and devotion from which godly lives should spring.
4:2  ^e The prophet also charged the Israelites for their sins of commission. The crimes listed here are all prohibited in the Ten Commandments (Exod 20:3-17  ^f; Deut 5:7-21  ^g), the fundamental list of covenant responsibilities. Because the Israelites did not know the Lord, they did not practice even the most basic standards of covenant life.
4:3  ^h God’s judgment inevitably falls upon sinful people. Because of the Israelites’ sin, their land and all of nature would suffer.
Summary for Hos 4:4-5: 4:4-5  ⁱ When we are accused of a crime, our human inclination is to blame someone else, but God makes it clear that the blame for Israel’s apostasy lay with her religious leaders, priests, and false prophets.

• God’s judgment on the priests and prophets was that they would stumble and fall (the same word in Hebrew), both professionally and personally.
4:6  ^j Because the priests refused to know the Lord, neither did the people know their God. As a result, the people were being destroyed.

• A primary function of the priests of Israel was to know, practice, and teach the laws of ... God. Ironically, these guardians of the law had forgotten it.
4:9  ^k The people followed the evil example of their religious leaders; as a result, God would punish both priests and people for their wicked deeds.
4:10  ^l God’s judgment matches the punishment to the crime. The Israelites worshiped Canaanite fertility deities with the expectation of bountiful crops and herds, but God’s judgment was that they would still be hungry and their religious prostitution would gain them nothing.
4:12  ^m They ask a piece of wood for advice! For millennia, people have worshiped natural objects such as wood and stones that they believed embodied spirits and gods (Jer 2:27  ⁿ). Biblical religion completely rejects such practices and beliefs (Exod 20:4-5  ^o; Isa 44:19  ^p).
4:13  ^q Many Canaanite religious rites were practiced on the mountaintops and hills. On these pagan “high places,” sacred trees were usually used in fertility worship (1 Kgs 14:23  ^r; Jer 2:20  ^s).

• Israelite daughters and brides also committed sexual acts in the worship of Baal; they were possibly forced to do so by their fathers and husbands.
4:14  ^t God declared that he would not single out the young women for their prostitution. This declaration contrasts with double standards that were common in ancient cultures.

• shrine prostitutes: The Hebrew word refers to female prostitutes who were dedicated to the service of Baal and Asherah in the temples of Baal (Deut 23:18  ^u).
4:15  ^v Beth-aven refers to the wickedness being practiced at Bethel, the most important worship center in the northern kingdom of Israel (see Amos 7:13  ^w; cp. Hos 5:8  ^x; 10:5  ^y).

‏ Hosea 5

5:1  ^z Hosea again condemns the religious and political leaders of Israel. They have led the people into idolatry as hunters trap wild animals in a snare.

• The specific sins at Mizpah and Tabor are not known.
5:2  ^aa I will settle with you: God’s judgment (Hebrew musar, “discipline”) would inevitably fall upon Israel’s leaders. God did not judge Israel simply to punish them, but to correct them so that his people would return to him.
5:3  ^ab you are utterly defiled: The word translated defiled is used frequently in the Pentateuch to describe ritual uncleanness, a physical condition that disqualified a person from worshiping God in the Temple (Lev 11–15  ^ac). The prophets used the concept as a metaphor for Israel’s moral uncleanness as the result of her idolatry (Isa 6:5  ^ad; Mic 2:10  ^ae).
5:4  ^af Israel’s idolatrous practices were so ingrained that they were apparently powerless to return to the Lord.

• You are a prostitute through and through (literally the spirit of prostitution is within them): Israel’s sin was not simply a behavior; it was the nation’s essential nature. They instinctively preferred the corrupt to the pure. Only through God’s work of salvation could Israel escape.
Summary for Hos 5:6-7: 5:6-7  ^ag The people might think that they could win God’s favor with their sacrifices, but Hosea warned them that they would not find him; God had left them to the consequences of their sin.
Summary for Hos 5:8-9: 5:8-9  ^ah Hosea sounded the alarm to warn the Israelites of God’s coming judgment. Because of their sins, the Lord had become Israel’s enemy and would punish them.

• Gibeah, Ramah, and Beth-aven (Bethel) are all cities in the tribal territory of Benjamin.
5:10  ^ai thieves (literally those who move a boundary marker): The Lord was the owner of the land, which he entrusted to the tribes following the conquest (see Josh 13:8–19:51  ^aj). To move a boundary marker and change God’s allotted boundaries was to steal from God (Deut 19:14  ^ak). Such an act rightly invoked divine punishment (Deut 27:17  ^al).
5:12  ^am as a moth ... rotten wood: Sin can destroy the very fabric and foundation of a people while leaving them unaware that the destruction has taken place.
5:13  ^an In a final effort to avoid complete destruction, the Israelites overthrew King Pekah and placed a new king, Hoshea, on the throne. Hoshea then appealed to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser for peace (2 Kgs 15:29-30  ^ao; 17:3  ^ap), but these diplomatic maneuvers could neither help nor cure Israel—they would soon be destroyed by Assyria.
5:15  ^aq Hosea again reminded Israel that divine judgment was not merely punitive. God’s purpose was to convince Israel to admit their guilt and return to the Lord (see 2:2  ^ar, 14  ^as).

‏ Hosea 6

Summary for Hos 6:1-3: 6:1-3  ^at In response to God’s acts of judgment on Israel, the religious leaders called the people to return to the Lord in repentance and urged everyone to know the Lord.

• The rains in early spring were essential to the agricultural cycle of the land.
6:4  ^au The response of Israel was inadequate; God lamented that their love disappeared like morning mist and dew.
6:6  ^av In one of Hosea’s key verses, God names the most important qualities that should characterize the Israelites’ covenant lives with him. First, the Lord wants his people to show love more than he wants sacrifices. Love (Hebrew khesed) includes faithfulness (see 4:1  ^aw; 6:4  ^ax). God is always faithful (Ps 136  ^ay), and he requires the same of his people. Second, the Lord wants Israel to know him more than he wants burnt offerings. Knowing God is much more than simply knowing facts about God (see thematic note for Knowing God at end of chapter). An intimate personal relationship with God is characterized by complete trust and integrity. Sacrifice still had a proper place in Israelite religion, but only when it was offered by a people who truly knew and loved God (see Isa 1:10-17  ^az; Amos 5:21-24  ^ba; Mic 6:6-8  ^bb).
Summary for Hos 6:7-11: 6:7-11  ^bc Hosea traces the way that human rebellion against God began with Adam and spread through the cities of Israel to the land of Judah.
6:9  ^bd Priests form bands of robbers: Hosea again condemns the religious leaders for their crimes (see 4:4-8  ^be).
6:10  ^bf something horrible: The prophet uses this rare word (also in Jer 18:13  ^bg) to describe the depth of Israel’s sin in breaking God’s covenant and betraying his trust.

Thematic note: Knowing God
From our perspective, knowledge tends to mean information, facts, and concepts. But in biblical times, knowledge was centered in personal relationships. To know someone is to enter into a close relationship with that person. Knowing God involves much more than simply mastering facts and information about him. It even transcends discussions about the nature and character of God, as important as those are. Knowing God means entering into a close relationship with him. It means viewing everything as God does and learning to imitate him. Knowing God will transform our thoughts and actions, our priorities and values, and our relationships with fellow human beings. It is far more important than religious rites, sacrifices and burnt offerings, or any other religious activities (see Jer 9:23-24  ^bh; 31:34  ^bi).
The prophet Hosea strongly emphasizes the importance of knowing God. He demonstrates that Israel would ultimately be destroyed (Hos 4:6  ^bj) because they did not know God (4:1  ^bk). This theme of knowing God is also prevalent in the New Testament Gospel of John. Jesus repeatedly stresses the need to know God, affirming that people can be heavily involved in religious practice but have no genuine relationship with God (see John 7:25-29  ^bl; 8:14-19  ^bm, 54-55  ^bn; 14:6-11  ^bo; 17:1-3  ^bp).


Passages for Further Study
Exod 33:8  ^bq, 11  ^br; Num 12:6-8  ^bs; Isa 11:9  ^bt; 43:10  ^bu; Jer 9:24  ^bv; 31:33-34  ^bw; Hos 6:3  ^bx, 6  ^by; John 17:3  ^bz; Phil 3:10  ^ca; Titus 1:16  ^cb; Heb 8:10-13  ^cc; 1 Jn 2:4  ^cd; 4:6  ^ce, 8  ^cf; 3 Jn 1:11  ^cg

‏ Hosea 7

Summary for Hos 7:1-2: 7:1-2  ^ch I want to heal Israel: God’s overwhelming desire was to heal Israel’s harlotry (see 14:4  ^ci) and restore her to right relationship with him, but she was filled with liars, thieves, and bandits.

• The Israelites might have thought that the Lord was unaware of their sins, but he was watching them, and he saw everything they did.
Summary for Hos 7:3-7: 7:3-7  ^cj The northern kingdom of Israel saw a succession of seven different kings during the final twenty-five years of its existence, four of whom were assassinated by usurpers. This passage refers to the vicious and bloody political intrigue that characterized these years. 7:3  ^ck The prophet did not record the name of this king, but many believe he was Hoshea, the northern kingdom’s last monarch.
7:4  ^cl adulterers: Hosea used this term earlier to describe spiritual apostasy (3:1  ^cm); it refers here to those who were disloyal to the king.
7:6  ^cn A simile aptly compares the plots and political intrigue during this turbulent time to a red-hot oven that breaks out to ignite the entire land.
7:7  ^co They kill their kings: The people of Israel assassinated one king after another as they desperately attempted to save their nation and their lives from the invading Assyrian army. Throughout these last years, they relied upon their own plans and plots and never thought to cry out to the Lord, their only true source of help.
Summary for Hos 7:8-12: 7:8-12  ^cp Israel ignored the Lord in their international politics as well as in their domestic policies. Like silly, witless doves, they had flown in a frenzy between Assyria and Egypt, the major powers of their day, vainly trying to make treaties and alliances that would save their land. 7:8  ^cq The people of Israel mingle with godless foreigners: By relying upon foreign nations rather than God for security, the Israelites were no longer a pure, holy nation, set apart for the Lord.

• Flatbread must be turned over at the proper time to ensure that it is baked on both sides rather than burned on one side and raw on the other. Israel was a half-baked cake and was therefore worthless.
7:9  ^cr foreign gods (literally foreigners): Israel’s political involvement with foreign nations had harmed their spiritual well-being.
7:11  ^cs When invaded by Assyria, Israel turned to Egypt for help. When Egypt proved powerless, Israel tried to appease Assyria by becoming its vassal (a subservient kingdom).
7:12  ^ct Like a fowler hunting birds, the Lord would throw his net over silly, witless Israel to punish them.
7:13  ^cu What sorrow: This word (Hebrew ’oy) was used at funerals to mourn the dead. In God’s eyes, Israel was as good as dead because they had rebelled against him. Rebellion against a human king was a capital crime; how much more serious it was for God’s people to rebel against their heavenly king.

• I wanted to redeem them: This Hebrew word means paying a fee to repatriate someone who has been enslaved. It is often associated with the exodus from Egypt. The Lord desired to do for the Israelites what he did when he brought their ancestors out of their slavery to pagan gods, but they ... told lies about him.
7:14  ^cv They cut themselves: Self-mutilation was characteristic of Canaanite worship (see 1 Kgs 18:28  ^cw); it was prohibited in Israel (Deut 14:1  ^cx).
7:16  ^cy A crooked (literally loose) bow cannot propel its arrow to the target; it depicts Israel’s futility apart from God (see 7:8  ^cz, 11  ^da).

‏ Hosea 8

8:1  ^db Sound the alarm: The ram’s horn trumpet (shofar) called the people to worship (Ps 98:6  ^dc); it was also (as here) the signal for battle (2 Sam 20:1  ^dd). God was sending an enemy, the Assyrians, to execute his judgment on Israel.

• revolted against my law: God’s law (Hebrew torah) is much more than the sum of the individual laws in the Pentateuch. It represents the totality of God’s instruction to his people through his words and his deeds. Loving fulfillment of the Torah was Israel’s part of the covenant. They had broken God’s commandments, and they had turned aside from their covenant relationship with the Lord.
8:3  ^de Jesus tells us that God alone is good (Mark 10:18  ^df). God is the source of every good thing, yet Israel rejected him.
8:4  ^dg appointed kings without my consent: The Israelites quickly disposed of one king and appointed another if they thought it might save their nation (see 7:7  ^dh). They did all of this without consulting their true king, the Lord.
Summary for Hos 8:5-6: 8:5-6  ^di this calf: When Jeroboam I (931–910 BC), the first king of the northern kingdom of Israel, ascended the throne, he established places of worship in the cities of Dan and Bethel so that the people would not travel to the Temple in Jerusalem, the capital of the southern kingdom. At each site, he erected a gold calf for the people to worship (1 Kgs 12:26-30  ^dj).
8:7  ^dk When Hosea proclaimed divine judgment, the punishment fit the crime (see study note on 4:10). Through their idolatry and political intrigue, the Israelites had planted the seeds of their own destruction (see Gal 6:7  ^dl).
8:9  ^dm Like a wild donkey: Hosea compared Israel’s worship of the Canaanite fertility gods to an animal in heat that was desperate to mate (see Jer 2:23-24  ^dn).
8:10  ^do I will now gather them together: Although God sometimes promises to gather his people for deliverance (Zech 10:8-10  ^dp), here the Lord would gather them for judgment (Joel 3:11  ^dq).
8:11  ^dr Israel has built many altars: As Israel’s idolatry increased, her religious activities increased in an attempt to take away sin; instead, these rites only increased her sin.
8:13  ^ds I do not accept their sacrifices: See 6:6  ^dt; Isa 1:10-17  ^du; Amos 5:21-24  ^dv; Mic 6:6-8  ^dw.

• They will return to Egypt, the place of slavery (Deut 28:68  ^dx). God’s dealings with Israel did not end with judgment. The divine purpose of judgment was to restore Israel to the status they had when they came out of Egypt, so that they could experience a new beginning (see Hos 2:14-15  ^dy).
8:14  ^dz Israel has forgotten its Maker: See 2:13  ^ea.

• God’s judgment is often described as fire sent upon the royal palaces and fortresses (see Amos 1:4  ^eb, 7  ^ec).

‏ Hosea 9

9:1  ^ed do not rejoice: This is probably a reference to the Festival of Shelters, when Israel celebrated the final harvest of the year. This festival was ordained by God (Deut 16:13-15  ^ee), but the Israelites had turned it into a wild pagan festival, behaving as other nations did.

• hiring yourselves out like prostitutes (literally you have loved a prostitute’s pay): The Israelites ignorantly believed that their grain and wine were payment for their worship of the Canaanite fertility god.
9:2  ^ef As punishment for their prostitution, the Lord would so reduce the Israelites’ harvests that they would go hungry (cp. Hag 1:3-11  ^eg).
9:3  ^eh God would exile the Israelites to Assyria in 722 BC. There, in an unclean land, they would eat ceremonially unclean food, further separating themselves from their covenant with the Lord.
9:4  ^ei In exile, the Israelites could not offer legitimate sacrifices because any sacrifice in a foreign land was unclean and defiled.
9:6  ^ej Even if some Israelites were to escape Assyrian exile by fleeing to Egypt, God’s relentless judgment would reach them there.
9:7  ^ek Apostate Israelites refused to believe God’s words of judgment as delivered by the prophets and mockingly cried that the prophets were crazy.
9:8  ^el The watchman stood guard on the wall of the city to warn of any threat (e.g., 1 Sam 14:16  ^em). In the same way, a prophet was God’s watchman, stationed to warn Israel of her sin and of the judgment that sin would inevitably bring (see Jer 6:17  ^en; Ezek 3:17  ^eo). Despite his service to the people, all the prophet received was hostility.
9:9  ^ep what they did in Gibeah long ago: See Judg 19–21  ^eq.
9:10  ^er when I first found you: Hosea, like Ezekiel (Ezek 16  ^es), speaks of the Lord’s finding and adopting chaste, innocent Israel in the desert. But Israel soon deserted God for idols at Baal-peor (Num 25:1-4  ^et). Participation in idolatry had made the Israelites vile. This strong word can also be translated “detestable” (Deut 29:17  ^eu) or “Abominable” (Jer 7:30  ^ev). They inevitably resembled what they worshiped.
9:11  ^ew Israel worshiped the baals to ensure that they would have many children, but God would punish them by preventing birth, pregnancy, and even conception.
9:13  ^ex for slaughter: Rather than gaining them more children, the Israelites’ idolatry would backfire, resulting in their children’s deaths.
9:15  ^ey All their wickedness began at Gilgal: Gilgal was the base camp for Joshua’s army (Josh 5:10  ^ez; 10:6  ^fa, 43  ^fb) and the place where Saul was made king (1 Sam 11:15  ^fc). Saul also disobeyed God and was rejected as king at Gilgal (1 Sam 13:8-15  ^fd; 15:10-23  ^fe). Israel’s leaders, including its first king, had led the nation away from their true king, the Lord.

• I will love them no more: Although a different Hebrew word is used here, the prophetic judgment reflects the name of Hosea’s daughter (Hos 1:6  ^ff).
9:17  ^fg wanderers: God’s judgment on the Israelites would cut them off from the land, leaving them with no home.

‏ Hosea 10

10:1  ^fh Although Israel was God’s luxuriant, fruitful vine (see Isa 5:1-7  ^fi; Jer 2:21  ^fj; Ezek 17:6  ^fk), she falsely attributed her prosperity to the Canaanite fertility gods, rather than to the Lord, and she spent the riches God had given her to enhance her worship of idols.

• sacred pillars: Stone pillars could be acceptable memorials (Gen 35:20  ^fl; Josh 24:26-27  ^fm), but God prohibited the Israelites from using them in worship as the Canaanites did (Exod 23:24  ^fn; Deut 16:22  ^fo).
10:3  ^fp We have no king: Some interpreters see these words as an acknowledgement, after the destruction of Israel, that they had been punished and the monarchy had come to an end because they didn’t fear the Lord. Others regard this as the Israelites’ arrogant rejection of the Lord’s kingship.
10:4  ^fq The perversion of justice is like bitter, poisonous weeds (Amos 6:12  ^fr).
Summary for Hos 10:5-6: 10:5-6  ^fs Israel’s gold calf idol (see 8:5-6  ^ft) would become a prize of war for the invading Assyrians.
10:8  ^fu The only response of Israelites who survived the coming catastrophe would be to implore the mountains and hills, “Bury us! ... Fall on us!”
Summary for Hos 10:9-10: 10:9-10  ^fv The horrible events at Gibeah (Judg 19–21  ^fw) set the pattern of sin for the people of the northern kingdom of Israel (see Hos 9:9  ^fx). God’s punishment was that they would be overwhelmingly defeated in war, just as in the time of the judges (see Judg 2:10-15  ^fy).
10:11  ^fz Because Israel was not faithful to the covenant, the Lord placed on her a heavy yoke—the divine correction required to bring her back to him.
10:12  ^ga Using metaphors from agriculture, God set forth his requirements for his people and a promise of blessing if they did what he commanded (see 6:6  ^gb; 8:7  ^gc). Even as Hosea announced God’s judgment, he offered Israel the chance to repent and receive God’s blessing.
10:14  ^gd When Shalman destroyed Beth-arbel: This event is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible or in other available sources, but it was evidently well known to Hosea’s audience.

‏ Hosea 11

Summary for Hos 11:1-11: 11:1-11  ^ge God agonized over Israel’s unfaithfulness. Despite all he had done, Israel had become a rebel. Justice required severe punishment, but the final sentence for Israel would be determined by God’s tender compassion for his people, not by an abstract principle. 11:1  ^gf my son: The Lord adopted Israel when he delivered him out of Egypt. This verse is quoted in reference to Jesus in Matt 2:15  ^gg (see study note on Matt 4:1-11).
11:2  ^gh In spite of God’s love, Israel had become a rebellious child, offering sacrifices to . . . Baal. The penalty for a rebellious son was death (Deut 21:18-21  ^gi).
Summary for Hos 11:3-4: 11:3-4  ^gj God’s nurture of the infant Israel was marked by kindness and love.
Summary for Hos 11:5-7: 11:5-7  ^gk Because the Israelites had refused to return to the Lord, they would return to Egypt and ... serve Assyria. Their past bondage in Egypt was a symbol for their coming exile in Assyria.
11:8  ^gl Though justice demanded Israel’s death, the Lord recoiled at the thought of giving Israel up, of letting them go, of destroying his son.

• Admah and Zeboiim were cities near Sodom and Gomorrah that God totally destroyed (Deut 29:23  ^gm).

• In Hebrew thought, the heart is the center of the intellect and the will.
11:9  ^gn No: The Lord alone would determine Israel’s fate. God repeated the words I will not three times, emphasizing his decision not to completely destroy his people.

• The reason for the divine decision is, I am the Holy One living among you. God’s holiness distinguishes him from every created thing (see thematic note for God’s Absolute Holiness at end of chapter). An offended mortal might very well destroy a rebel out of pique and spite. The Holy One does not operate out of those motives.
Summary for Hos 11:10-11: 11:10-11  ^go Israel’s sin would not have the final word; God, in his holy love, would roar like a lion (see Amos 1:2  ^gp; 3:8  ^gq) to call his people home from exile.
Summary for Hos 11:12-12:14: 11:12–12:14  ^gr Israel had perpetrated lies and deceit since the time of Jacob.

Thematic note: God’s Absolute Holiness
Holiness is the fundamental descriptor of who God is. It is not merely one of his many attributes; it is the key to his very being. Calling God “the Holy One” speaks to the transcendence of his nature, in sharp contrast to the finite creation, whose creatures are bound by time and space. God speaks of himself as “I Am Who I Am” (Exod 3:14  ^gs), defining himself by himself. God is the Wholly Other, the One who is completely self-sufficient and distinct from the created order.
God’s holiness also speaks of his character. It is common to describe God’s holiness in terms of his separation from sin and his wrath against it, but the notion of holiness embraces all of God’s character, including his mercy. God revealed himself to Moses as the “God of compassion and mercy.” He said, “I am slow to anger and filled with unfailing love and faithfulness.” In his holiness, God shows this “unfailing love to a thousand generations. I forgive iniquity, rebellion, and sin. But I do not excuse the guilty” (Exod 34:6-7  ^gt).
God’s holiness can be deadly to uninvited intruders (Isa 6:3  ^gu, 5  ^gv; see Exod 28:35  ^gw) or to those who treat it with contempt. His infinite holiness is too much for finite, fallen mortals and would utterly destroy them apart from God’s mercy. Understanding God’s holiness should thus trigger a response of awe and reverence. Anything less would be profane. Perhaps this was the error that cost Nadab and Abihu their lives (Lev 10:1-3  ^gx). Only in recognizing the awesomeness of God can we appreciate his great love for us and worship him appropriately and authentically.


Passages for Further Study
Exod 3:14  ^gy; 34:6-7  ^gz; Lev 10:3  ^ha; Lev 11:44-45  ^hb; 1 Sam 2:1-2  ^hc; Isa 6:3-5  ^hd; 52:10  ^he; Hos 11:9  ^hf

‏ Hosea 12

12:1  ^hg alliance with Assyria: In order to save his land, Hoshea became a vassal of King Shalmaneser of Assyria (2 Kgs 17:3  ^hh). Hoshea soon rebelled against Shalmaneser by withholding tribute and turned to King So of Egypt for support (2 Kgs 17:4  ^hi).

• east wind: See study note on Job 38:24-27.
12:3  ^hj Jacob struggled with his brother (literally he supplanted his brother): This verb (Hebrew ‘aqab) forms the root of Jacob’s name. Even before he was born, Jacob acted out the meaning of his name by supplanting his brother Esau (Gen 25:26  ^hk).

• As an adult, Jacob even fought with God (see Gen 32:22-30  ^hl) and was renamed “Israel,” meaning “God fights.”
12:4  ^hm at Bethel he met God: See Gen 28:11-22  ^hn.
12:6  ^ho The Lord admonished Israel to live no longer as Jacob did, but to return to God and act with love and justice.
Summary for Hos 12:7-8: 12:7-8  ^hp During the reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 BC), Israelite merchants became fabulously wealthy, often by using deceitful business practices like dishonest scales (see Amos 8:5-6  ^hq).

• The Hebrew term translated merchants is kena‘an (“Canaan”). Canaanite traders were notorious in the ancient world for their crafty dealings. The Israelites had imitated their pagan neighbors not only in religion but also in commerce.
12:9  ^hr I will make you live in tents again: God’s judgment on the wealthy Israelite merchants was for them to return to the humble dwellings of the Exodus. There is also a word of hope here: God’s plan of salvation for Israel would begin anew in the wilderness (see 2:14-15  ^hs).
12:11  ^ht Gilead and Gilgal were Israelite cities in which Baal was worshiped instead of the Lord (see 4:15  ^hu; 6:8  ^hv; 9:15  ^hw).
12:13  ^hx by a prophet: Moses’ faithful obedience to God contrasts with Israel’s disobedience.

‏ Hosea 13

13:1  ^hy At the height of its power, the tribe of Ephraim evoked terror among other Israelites (see Isa 7:2  ^hz).

• and thus sealed their destruction (literally and he [Ephraim] died): Because of their idolatry, they had cut themselves off from the Lord, the only true source of life.
13:2  ^ia The Hebrew word translated idols is the same one used of the gold calf (Exod 32:4  ^ib, 8  ^ic; see also Hos 10:5-6  ^id; Amos 5:5-6  ^ie).

• kiss the calf idols: The Canaanite religious rituals included kissing images of Baal (1 Kgs 19:18  ^if).
13:3  ^ig God’s judgment on idolatrous Ephraim was that they would disappear (cp. 6:4  ^ih).

• Mist ... dew ... chaff and smoke signify impermanence.
Summary for Hos 13:4-5: 13:4-5  ⁱⁱ there is no other savior: The Lord had proved this to Israel during the Exodus and the wilderness wandering.
13:6  ^ij you became proud and forgot me: They relied not on the Lord for security, but on their kings, armies, and economic prosperity (see 2:13  ^ik).
Summary for Hos 13:7-8: 13:7-8  ^il God had executed judgment on Israel through the Assyrian army, his instrument of punishment. The description of God’s attack speaks of the Assyrians’ cruelty to those they conquered.
13:9  ^im me, your only helper: See Pss 70:5  ⁱⁿ; 115:9  ^io; 121:2  ^ip; 124:8  ^iq. Israel’s sin had turned their helper into their destroyer.
13:10  ^ir where is your king? When Hoshea’s alliance with Egypt failed (see 12:1  ^is), he tried to make peace with Assyria, but he was captured and imprisoned (2 Kgs 17:4  ^it). The Israelites had relied on their armies and kings to save them rather than on the Lord, and now there was no one to save them.
13:11  ^iu Israel had crowned her kings without consulting the Lord, so now he would take them away in fury.
13:12  ^iv God had carefully stored up the record of Israel’s sin and guilt. He could not escape his punishment.
13:13  ^iw Israel was like a child in the womb who resists being born (literally an unwise son). Incredibly, Israel would rather stay in the womb than receive life from the Lord.
13:14  ^ix The term here translated the grave (Hebrew Sheol) refers to the realm of the dead (see Job 3:11-19  ^iy; see also study note on Job 7:9). The Lord is sovereign even over Sheol, and he could redeem Israel if he chose to. But he will not take pity on the Israelites, and he calls upon death to punish them.
13:16  ^iz In 722 BC, Assyria captured Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:5-6  ^ja). Thousands died during the three-year siege, and thousands more were sent into exile. This was because they rebelled against their God.

• The horrible practice of killing pregnant women is also mentioned in Amos 1:13  ^jb and 2 Kgs 15:16  ^jc.

‏ Hosea 14

Summary for Hos 14:1-9: 14:1-9  ^jd Destruction was not God’s last word to his covenant people. Although judgment must come, God’s healing, restoring grace is always more powerful than human sin.
Summary for Hos 14:2-3: 14:2-3  ^je Hosea composed a model prayer of confession to help his people return to the Lord. God’s prophets not only identified with God in his outrage over Israel’s rebellion; they also identified with the people in their broken condition (see also Dan 9:4-19  ^jf).

• Forgive all our sins: The Israelites should throw themselves upon God’s mercy and grace, freely acknowledging their many sins.

• so that we may offer you our praises: Israel’s inclination was to offer animal sacrifices for sin, but the Lord had made it clear that sacrifices were not the solution (see Hos 6:6  ^jg). Israel should offer God genuine repentance.
14:3  ^jh The Israelites must renounce their dependence upon idols, foreign alliances, and their own military strength. Although they were God’s own children (11:1  ^ji), they made themselves orphans through their rebellion. When they sincerely and completely repented, they could again find mercy.
14:4  ^jj Then I will heal you: Healing by God is the only solution for the disease of sin. The Lord heals all our diseases, both physical and spiritual (Ps 103:3  ^jk).
Summary for Hos 14:5-7: 14:5-7  ^jl Hosea describes the effect of God’s healing love on repentant Israel. God promises to provide the fertility that Israel had sought from the baals. 14:5  ^jm like a refreshing dew: In the semi-desert climate of Israel, dew was an important source of life-giving moisture (Gen 27:28  ^jn; Deut 33:28  ^jo).

• it will send roots deep: When Israel lived in faithfulness to their covenant with the Lord, they would be solid and stable like the majestic cedars in Lebanon (Ps 92:12  ^jp).
14:7  ^jq under my shade: A place of safety and relief (Ps 91:1  ^jr; Isa 25:4  ^js).
14:8  ^jt Hosea exhorts Israel one final time to stay away from idols. Their life comes only from the Lord; he is an evergreen tree that always bears fruit.
14:9  ^ju This final verse commends Hosea’s words to wise and discerning believers of all generations.