Leviticus 1
Book of Leviticus — Quick facts:Purpose: To demonstrate God’s holiness and point his people to lead holy lives
Author: Moses, according to tradition
Date: Records events that likely occurred around either 1446 BC or 1270 BC
Setting: The Israelites had been established as God’s covenant people and were camped at the foot of Mount Sinai
Book of Leviticus — Overview:
Setting
Leviticus continues the account of redemption that began with the promises made to Abraham (Gen 12 a, 15 b, 17 c) and the liberation of the Israelites from bondage in Egypt (Exod 1–15 d). The setting of Leviticus is the foot of Mount Sinai. The Israelites had not yet wandered in the wilderness or entered the Promised Land of Canaan. God had already established his covenant with Israel, declaring the Israelites to be his special treasure, royal priesthood, and chosen people (Exod 19:5-6 e). The people of Israel had received the Ten Commandments (Exod 20:1-17 f), the plans for the Tabernacle (Exod 25–27 g; 30:1-38 h), and the institution of the priesthood (Exod 28–29 i). The Tabernacle had been completed and dedicated (Exod 35–40 j). Now, in Leviticus, God spoke to Moses about his own holy nature, providing instructions about worship and conduct appropriate for Israel as his covenant people.
Summary
The regulations in Leviticus deal primarily with the activities and responsibilities of the priestly tribe of Levi, especially the high priest (see Exod 28 k; Num 3:44–4:49 l). It includes God’s instructions about the Tabernacle, the priesthood, sacrifices, holy days, and ceremonial purity. Three main concerns are evident throughout Leviticus: the holiness of God, what is appropriate in worshiping a holy God, and how Israel was to be holy in relation to God.
A proper relationship with God begins with knowing who God is and understanding his nature. Yet, finite human minds cannot fully comprehend God, the Eternal One. Worse, if left to our own intuition, we inevitably begin to worship idols rather than the true God. In Leviticus, God graciously reveals his holiness in tangible ways and instructs his people how to worship him acceptably. Each sacrifice and holy day teaches the Israelites about God and what he requires of them.
God calls Israel to know him and to love him (see Deut 6:5 m; 11:1 n). As a result, they will also love and serve one another (19:18 o, 33-34 p). The rituals and regulations revealed in Leviticus teach the Israelites how to integrate love and service into their lives, both as individuals and as a nation.
Authorship
Some scholars believe that Leviticus was written during Israel’s exile in Babylon (about 586–539 BC), long after the time of Moses. This view, however, does not explain why Judaism during the Exile, which was increasingly oriented around the rabbi and the synagogue, would be concerned with the priesthood and the Tabernacle. Nor does it account for Israelite worship prior to the Exile, aside from the liturgy contained or implied in the Psalms.
It is likely that Moses wrote Leviticus during Israel’s time in the wilderness after the Exodus. Both Jewish tradition and the early Christian church identified Moses as the author of Leviticus. Moses, raised in the court of Egypt’s king, would have been skilled in reading, writing, and mathematics (see Acts 7:20-22 q) and quite capable of writing Leviticus. The book begins and ends with statements affirming that the contents of Leviticus were given to Israel by God through Moses (1:1-2 r; 27:34 s). Leviticus repeatedly describes how Moses received the Lord’s instructions (e.g., 4:1 t; 5:14 u; 6:1 v, 8 w, 19 x, 24 y; 7:22 z, 28 aa; 8:1 ab) and carried them out (8:4–10:20 ac). The Old Testament often refers to Moses as the author of the Pentateuch (Genesis—Deuteronomy; see Josh 8:31-32 ad; 23:6 ae; 1 Kgs 2:3 af; 2 Kgs 14:6 ag; 23:25 ah; 2 Chr 23:18 ai; 30:16 aj; Ezra 3:2 ak; 7:6 al; Neh 8:1 am; Dan 9:11-13 an). The New Testament does the same (Matt 19:7-8 ao; Luke 2:22 ap; 24:44 aq; John 7:19 ar, 23 as; Rom 10:5 at; 1 Cor 9:9 au; Heb 10:28 av). See also Genesis Book Introduction, “Authorship.”
Meaning and Message
Although it is set in an ancient time and culture, Leviticus communicates a timeless and vibrant message: God is holy, and he expects his people, whom he has rescued, to be holy like he is. God’s holiness and his gracious redemption provide both the foundation and the motivation for his people’s own holiness (11:44-45 aw).
The priests stood between God and the people as mediators of the covenant. The priests interpreted what was holy and how holiness should be expressed in the community. The atoning sacrifices provided the way for the people to have their sins forgiven and to be made right with God (atonement). The non-atoning sacrifices celebrated the people’s relationship with God through gifts and shared meals. While surrounding nations offered sacrifices to their gods to appease them and gain their favor, Israel’s worship was not designed to manipulate God. Rather, the worship prepared and purified the people so that they could approach God. Each of the laws, ceremonies, and holy days teaches that God is holy and that he expects his people to be holy (Lev 11:44-45 ax; 19:2 ay; see 1 Cor 3:17 az; 1 Pet 1:15 ba).
Forgiveness of sin and reconciliation to God directly relate to how people treat one another. Concern for social justice pervades Leviticus, which sets forth obligations to one’s neighbor, to the poor, and to foreigners. God expects those in covenant with him to love each other as an expression of his love (cp. Matt 22:39 bb; Mark 12:31 bc; Luke 10:27 bd; Rom 13:9 be; Gal 5:14 bf; Jas 2:8 bg).
Summary for Lev 1:1-2: 1:1–7:38 bh The first major section of Leviticus deals with the institution of the sacrificial system and the priesthood. The sacrifices were either for atonement (the whole burnt offering, sin offering, and guilt offering) or for worship (grain offering and peace offering). Each one taught theology through a hands-on approach. Priests were required to officiate in the sacrificial worship at the Tabernacle, to instruct God’s people in the revelation given to Moses at Sinai, and to represent the people before God, such as on the Day of Atonement (ch 16 bi). Priests were provided for by receiving a portion of the offerings. 1:1 bj The Lord called to Moses from the Tabernacle: Leviticus is part of the ongoing narrative of the Pentateuch (Gen 1:1 bk—Deut 34:12 bl). It is part of the history of God’s saving acts: God chose Israel to be his people, delivered them from slavery in Egypt, entered into a covenant relationship with them, and guided them through the desert to the Promised Land. Specifically, Leviticus picks up with events recorded in Exod 40:34-38 bm, when construction of the Tabernacle is completed. It has been dedicated, and the Lord has filled it with his glory. Now the Lord gives Moses instructions for conducting worship at the Tabernacle.
• The Tabernacle (literally Tent of Meeting; see study note on Exod 27:21) was an earthly representation of God’s palace. Inside the Most Holy Place, the Ark of the Covenant represented God’s throne (Exod 40:1-33 bn). The Lord’s glory resided between the outstretched wings of the cherubim. There he would meet with Israel to communicate his will to them (see Exod 25:22 bo).
Summary for Lev 1:2-3: 1:2-3 bp When: This word introduces a major category (the process of presenting an offering), followed by a series of conditions introduced by if (1:3 bq, 10 br, 14 bs). This when/if pattern is generally followed through all the major offerings described in 1:2–6:7 bt.
• offering (Hebrew qorban; see study note on Mark 7:11) is a general term referring to all kinds of offerings and gifts, including the various offerings described in Lev 1–7 bu.
Summary for Lev 1:3-17: 1:3-17 bv burnt offering (Hebrew ‘olah, “what goes up”): The Hebrew word implies the ascent of the animal in flame and smoke. Except for its hide, given in payment to the officiating priest (7:8 bw), this offering was burned completely on the altar (1:9 bx). Its purpose was to satisfy God’s wrath against sin, ceremonially cleansing the worshiper and restoring him or her to fellowship with God (cp. Rom 3:25 by; 8:3 bz; 2 Cor 5:18-21 ca). The whole burnt offering occurs first in this list of offerings (Lev 1–7 cb), providing a pattern for offerings that follow. It is the most common and most general atoning offering. 1:3 cc male with no defects: God allowed female and slightly deformed animals for certain types of non-atoning offerings (see 3:1 cd; 4:27-31 ce; 22:23 cf), but not for the whole burnt offering. In the dry, brush-encrusted hills of southern Palestine, cattle were much more difficult to raise than sheep or goats. This meant a bull without defect was an animal of great value. Centuries later, the prophet Malachi confronted the people for offering sick and lame animals instead of those without defect (Mal 1:6-14 cg).
1:4 ch Lay your hand on the animal’s head: The sacrificial animal represented the worshiper in the ceremony (4:4 ci, 15 cj, 24 ck, 29 cl, 33 cm; 16:21 cn). This act signified that the animal’s death represented the death of its owner. In the ritual for the Day of Atonement, it signified that the sins of the owner were transferred to the animal (16:20-22 co). With the peace offering (3:2 cp, 8 cq, 13 cr), the act seems to have indicated ownership of the animal being sacrificed.
• The phrase in your place may mean “in payment for sin” (sometimes called expiation) or “as a substitute for the sinner’s death” (sometimes called propitiation).
• to purify you, making you right with him (or to make atonement for you): Although older commentaries describe this process as “covering over” sin, recent scholarship defines it as “blotting out, erasing, or cleansing from” sin. The concept involves satisfying God’s wrath against sin, ceremonially cleansing the worshiper, and restoring fellowship with God in the community of God’s people.
1:5 cs Aaron’s sons: The descendants of Levi, Moses’ own tribe, were divided into two categories: (1) priests, who were descendants of Aaron, the first high priest; and (2) Levites, who served in subordinate roles (Exod 28:1-4 ct; Num 18:1-7 cu). The instructions given here applied to later generations as well.
• The blood was a symbol of life, not of death. The Israelite system of sacrifice was based on the principle of substitution, and the shedding of sacrificial blood was essential for atonement. It represented sacrificing the life of the animal as a substitute for the life of the worshiper (Lev 17:10-14 cv; Heb 9:22 cw). The blood of Jesus Christ was shed as the ultimate sacrifice for sin (Heb 9:11-14 cx).
• The altar of burnt offering was located in the east end of the courtyard, outside the Tabernacle but inside the entrance to the courtyard (Exod 40:6 cy, 29 cz).
1:6 da The entire animal was to be burned, except for the skin, which was the priest’s share of the offering (7:8 db).
1:8 dc The Hebrew word translated fat describes the suet, or hard fat, from around the kidneys and loins. This specific term occurs only here and in 1:12 dd and 8:20 de. All fat—not just this special fat—was considered God’s portion (3:14-17 df; 7:23-25 dg; see 1 Sam 2:15-17 dh). Only the whole burnt offering was entirely consumed on the altar. With other offerings, the fatty portions and certain internal organs were burned; the rest belonged to the officiating priests and sometimes to the worshiper (Lev 7:11-18 di).
1:9 dj The offering was washed with water to remove dirt or debris that might contaminate the offering. Washing was also part of purification from ritual uncleanness, a prerequisite for Tabernacle service (6:27 dk; 11:28 dl).
• special gift: The Hebrew term (’isheh) has traditionally been rendered “offering made by fire.” Although the offering was to be burned (1:13 dm, 17 dn), recent scholarship suggests that the word had the more generic meaning of “gift.”
• pleasing aroma to the Lord (literally a restful odor; also in 1:13 do, 17 dp): Pagan people of the ancient Near East believed that their gods smelled the offerings because they needed to eat them to sustain their lives. Although God’s response is sometimes represented in language that reflects the cultural setting (e.g., 21:6 dq; Num 28:2 dr), the Bible is clear that God did not need offerings as food (Ps 50:9-13 ds). Instead, they pleased him as sincere offerings for the purpose of atonement.
Summary for Lev 1:10-13: 1:10-13 dt Permission to offer lesser animals was to make the animal, and therefore atonement, more affordable to common Israelites. The method of offering these animals closely parallels the offering of bulls outlined in 1:3-9 du.
Summary for Lev 1:14-17: 1:14-17 dv Birds were plentiful, cheap, and easy to catch. This meant that atonement and worship through sacrifices were not only for the rich and privileged; the poor were also included (see also 5:7 dw; 12:8 dx; see Luke 2:24 dy).
1:17 dz tear ... without tearing it apart: Cutting larger animals into pieces (1:6 ea, 12 eb) probably reflects the ancient rite of covenant-making, in which the participant passed between the two halves of a sacrificed animal (see Gen 15:10 ec). Because of their small size, birds were not cut in half. If it was necessary to pass between them, they were arranged in pairs.
Leviticus 2
Summary for Lev 2:1-16: 2:1-16 ed The grain offering (Hebrew minkhah, “gift, present”) was a way to express worship to the Lord through a gift, recognizing him as Lord over the life of the worshiper. The grain offering was to accompany each whole burnt offering (Num 28:3-6 ee, 12-13 ef), sin offering (Num 6:14-15 eg), and peace offering (Lev 9:4 eh; Num 6:17 ei). The grain offering supplied the priest with bread for his daily sustenance, because no farmland was allocated to priests. 2:1 ej Choice flour was fine wheat flour (in contrast with common barley flour). See also 1 Kgs 4:22 ek; Ezek 16:13 el, 19 em.• Israelites used olive oil as shortening in their cooking, as lamp fuel, and for medicinal and cosmetic purposes. Accordingly, it was associated with the rich produce of the land and with God’s provision (Deut 8:8 en).
• Like choice flour, frankincense was frequently connected with the Tabernacle (Exod 30:34 eo; Lev 24:7 ep) or the Temple (1 Chr 9:29 eq). This fragrant tree resin was also used by individuals on special occasions (Song 3:6 er; Matt 2:11 es). It was a primary ingredient of the holy incense burned in the Holy Place as a tangible expression of worship (Exod 30:34-38 et).
2:2 eu The representative portion of the grain offering was burned on the altar to remind the worshiper that the whole offering belonged to God.
2:3 ev rest of the grain offering: A portion of the fire offerings was generally reserved for the priest as food (see 6:16-17 ew). Exceptions included the whole burnt offering (the priest received only the hide; see 7:8 ex), offerings given by the priest for himself (4:3-12 ey; 6:19-23 ez), or offerings made for the entire community (4:13-21 fa). In these cases, the offering was to be entirely burned. The grain offering provided the priests with bread for their diet.
• most holy (Hebrew qodesh qodashim, “holy of holies”): Both God and what belongs to him are holy. “Most holy” designates the priestly share as taken from the holy offering and reserved for a special function. This description is used for the priest’s share of any gifts dedicated to the Lord (Num 18:8-10 fb).
2:4 fc A large ceramic oven was placed in a hole, and around it a fire was kindled. Once the oven was hot, the flat bread baked against the inside of its wall.
• without any yeast: See study note on 2:11; see also Exod 12:8 fd.
2:5 fe A griddle was a flat stone or clay surface propped above a fire and heated. Later griddles were made of metal (Ezek 4:3 ff).
2:7 fg Dough prepared in a pan was fried with oil until crisp.
2:11 fh yeast: The bread commonly eaten in biblical times was comparable to modern sourdough. The substance that is often called “leaven” consisted of wild yeast spores mixed into moist dough or a flour mixture. The yeast would grow and cause the dough to ferment, souring and raising it. A reserved portion of the sour dough would be kneaded into subsequent batches (Matt 13:33 fi). Unleavened bread was required for the Passover (Exod 12:8 fj), in remembrance of Israel’s bondage in Egypt (Deut 16:3 fk) and their speedy departure from that land (Exod 12:34 fl; 13:3 fm). Following the Exodus, unleavened bread acquired the status of altar bread. Leavened bread was not to be burned on the altar.
• honey: The Hebrew word (debash) can also refer to fruit nectar. The reason for its exclusion is not stated, but perhaps the frequent use of honey in pagan offerings, particularly to gods of the underworld, was a contributing reason. If the word refers to fruit nectar, its association with wine and fermentation may have linked it with yeast, making it ineligible to be burned on the altar. However, both honey and yeast were allowed as part of an offering of first crops (Lev 2:12 fn). Loaves of bread made with yeast were to be presented with thank offerings (7:13 fo) and as a gift to the priest in the Festival of Harvest (23:17 fp). In the New Testament, yeast becomes a spiritual metaphor, playing on its sour taste and on its tendency to spread (Matt 16:6 fq, 11 fr, 12 fs; 1 Cor 5:6-8 ft; cp. Matt 13:33 fu).
2:12 fv offering of the first crops: This offering (called “firstfruits” in many translations) was brought from the first part of the harvest (23:15-21 fw; Num 28:26-31 fx). Like the representative portion of the grain offering, this offering acknowledged that the entire harvest belonged to God (Lev 23:10-11 fy; Exod 22:29 fz; 23:19 ga; 34:26 gb; Num 15:18-20 gc; Deut 18:4-5 gd; 26:1-2 ge). It further recognized that the land itself, not just its products, belonged to God; Israel was merely the tenant (see Lev 25:23 gf).
2:13 gg In ancient times, salt represented permanence because it preserved food. A covenant of salt (see study notes on Num 18:19; 2 Chr 13:5) denoted an enduring covenant that was renewed with successive generations.
Leviticus 3
Summary for Lev 3:1-17: 3:1-17 gh The peace offering (Hebrew shelem) expressed worship through fellowship with the Lord and with others. The Hebrew word is from the same root as shalom, which speaks of wholeness, well-being, harmony, and peace. Shalom means more than a cessation of hostilities between God and the worshiper; it implies a bond of harmonious fellowship. The peace offering was therefore a shared meal celebrating fellowship with God and others (cp. Exod 18:12 gi; 24:9-11 gj; 1 Sam 9:15-24 gk). It could be presented as an expression of thanks (Lev 7:12-15 gl), as a voluntary offering, or in fulfillment of a vow (7:16-18 gm; 22:21 gn). Peace offerings often followed whole burnt offerings (e.g., 1 Kgs 9:25 go), showing that fellowship with God follows atonement. When we have experienced atonement through Christ, we are able to be at peace with God and with each other (see Acts 2:42 gp; 10:36 gq; Rom 5:1 gr; 1 Cor 10:16 gs; 11:17-34 gt; 2 Cor 5:18-21 gu). 3:1 gv a male or a female: The whole burnt offering allowed only the use of male animals because it made atonement (1:3 gw, 10 gx). The less formal peace offering permitted both male and female animals (see also 4:28 gy, 32 gz).• no defects: The sacrificial animals had to be healthy. The only exception was the voluntary offering, for which a slight blemish was permissible (22:23 ha).
3:4 hb kidneys ... lobe of the liver: The Israelites saw the kidneys as organs of understanding, much like how we think of the brain (“I am overwhelmed [literally my kidneys are consumed],” Job 19:27 hc; “heart,” Pss 7:9 hd; 16:7 he; Jer 12:2 hf; Lam 3:13 hg; “motives,” Ps 26:2 hh; Jer 17:10 hi; “thoughts,” Jer 11:20 hj; 20:12 hk). The liver represented life and vitality, similar to how we think of the heart (Prov 7:23 hl; “spirit,” Lam 2:11 hm).
3:5 hn The burnt offering is described in 1:3-17 ho and is best referred to as the “whole burnt offering.” Because it was offered twice daily (see Num 28:4 hp), and because the need for atonement preceded fellowship, the text assumes that the burnt offering would be on the altar already. The priest was to lay the fatty portions and certain internal organs (3:3-4 hq) of the peace offering on top of it.
Summary for Lev 3:6-11: 3:6-11 hr Sheep were smaller, easier to raise, and less expensive than cattle. Apart from the exceptions mentioned in these verses, offerings of sheep followed the same pattern as those of cattle.
3:9 hs broad tail: Sheep in this part of the ancient Near East had broad, fatty tails that were burned on the altar with the rest of the fat.
3:11 ht special gift: See study note on 1:9.
• Offerings of food were called “God’s food” (21:6 hu, 8 hv, 17 hw, 21 hx, 22 hy; Num 28:2 hz). However, Scripture is clear that the Lord did not eat the offerings, as pagans believed their deities did (Ps 50:9-13 ia). Instead, these offerings belonged to God, and the priest ate a portion of this food as God’s representative (Lev 21:21-22 ib). These offerings sustained the priest and his family.
Summary for Lev 3:12-16: 3:12-16 ic The offering of goats followed a similar pattern as for cattle and sheep. Both goats and sheep were considered offerings from the flock (see 3:6 id).
3:17 ie Human beings were not permitted to eat the fat or blood (see 1:5 if, 8 ig and study notes).
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