Rev 6-16 | TNotes | STEP | Summary for Rev 6:1-17: 6:1–16:21 Three sets of seven judgments—the seals, trumpets, and bowls—form the core of Revelation. Some suggest that the judgments form a chronological sequence from beginning to end, with each set of judgments flowing from the seventh judgment of the previous set for a total of twenty-one successive judgments. More likely, the relationship is cyclical (as in other Jewish apocalyptic works; cp. Dan 2 , 7 , 8 , 11 ), with each set conveying increasing intensity and adding new details of God’s judgment on those who rebel against him. In this perspective, all three cycles end at the same chronological point, with the return of Christ. Summary for Rev 6:1-8:1: 6:1–8:1 The Lamb breaks the seven seals to reveal the significance of history from God’s perspective. Summary for Rev 6:1-8: 6:1-8 The four horses and their riders (see Zech 1:8-11 ; 6:1-8 ) sum up the power structures of the world; their activities primarily lead to war, violence, economic imbalance, and death. It is pointless to put our hope in these power structures.

Summary for Rev 6:1-17: 6:1–16:21 ^a Three sets of seven judgments—the seals, trumpets, and bowls—form the core of Revelation. Some suggest that the judgments form a chronological sequence from beginning to end, with each set of judgments flowing from the seventh judgment of the previous set for a total of twenty-one successive judgments. More likely, the relationship is cyclical (as in other Jewish apocalyptic works; cp. Dan 2 ^b, 7 ^c, 8 ^d, 11 ^e), with each set conveying increasing intensity and adding new details of God’s judgment on those who rebel against him. In this perspective, all three cycles end at the same chronological point, with the return of Christ.
Summary for Rev 6:1-8:1: 6:1–8:1 ^f The Lamb breaks the seven seals to reveal the significance of history from God’s perspective.
Summary for Rev 6:1-8: 6:1-8 ^g The four horses and their riders (see Zech 1:8-11 ^h; 6:1-8 ⁱ) sum up the power structures of the world; their activities primarily lead to war, violence, economic imbalance, and death. It is pointless to put our hope in these power structures.
6:2 ^j While some have understood the rider on a white horse to be Christ, as in 19:11 ^k, the only similarity between these two images is the horse. The four riders represent the destructive, senseless world and show no redeeming qualities.

• The bow was typical Greco-Roman military hardware; here it is a symbol of war.

• win many battles ... gain the victory: The double use of the Greek word nikaō (conquer) confirms that this rider is powerful. The focus on war and conquest illustrates human depravity.
Summary for Rev 6:3-4: 6:3-4 ^l The red horse represents bloody violence on the earth. Although peace was what the Roman Empire promised (the pax Romana), widespread violence was the horrible reality. This rider represents slaughter, including civil upheavals and ethnic cleansing.
Summary for Rev 6:5-6: 6:5-6 ^m The black horse represents economic and social dysfunction, indicated by scales used in commerce. Rampant inflation is shown by the cost of the staples of life: A loaf of wheat bread or three loaves of barley will cost a day’s pay. Yet the prices of luxuries such as oil and wine would remain unchanged. It is an image of social and economic imbalance.
Summary for Rev 6:7-8: 6:7-8 ⁿ With the fourth seal comes a ghastly looking horse. In the ancient world, pale green was the color for depicting a corpse.

• the Grave: Greek Hades. In Greek thought, Hades was the underworld abode of bodiless beings. The Hebrew idea of Sheol, the place of the dead (1 Sam 28:15 ^o), was similar.

• The killing of one-fourth of those on earth indicates that the final judgment has not yet arrived (contrast Rev 6:16-17 ^p).

• This fourfold set of woes (sword and famine and disease and wild animals; cp. Ezek 14:21 ^q) summarizes the tragedies of earthly existence. The world cannot offer hope to humanity.
Summary for Rev 6:9-11: 6:9-11 ^r In counterpoint to the world’s destructive ways (6:1-8 ^s), the fifth seal introduces Christian martyrs who ask how God intends to deal with evil. 6:9 ^t Rather than follow the world’s destructive ways, the martyrs gave their lives for the word of God.
6:10 ^u The martyrs shouted to the Sovereign Lord because they trusted in his power to redress their grievances.

• how long: Is God slow to act? Will justice be done? God does act decisively (see 6:12-14 ^v); his wrath (6:16-17 ^w) must be understood in terms of justice, fairness, and righteousness (see Exod 34:5-7 ^x; Neh 9:17 ^y; Pss 103:8 ^z; 145:8 ^aa; Joel 2:13 ^ab; Jon 4:2 ^ac; Rom 2:6-11 ^ad).

• avenge our blood: This cry for God’s justice follows the pattern of imprecatory (vengeance) psalms (see Pss 6:3 ^ae; 74:10 ^af; 79:5 ^ag; 80:4 ^ah; 137:1-9 ^ai). It also reflects the covenant curses of Deut 28:53-57 ^aj; 32:35 ^ak (quoted in Rom 12:19 ^al).
6:11 ^am A white robe is symbolic of the martyrs’ victory and of God’s full acceptance.

• they were told to rest: Death is a state of rest (cp. John 11:11-12 ^an) in which martyrs await God’s justice.

• the full number: Only God knows how many Christians will be martyred before the end. In his sovereignty, God will fulfill his purposes through his children who are martyred and will vindicate them at the appropriate time.

• brothers and sisters: Greek adelphoi; this term refers to people, both male and female, who are members of the same family.
Summary for Rev 6:12-17: 6:12-17 ^ao The opening of the sixth seal offers a glimpse into the end of the created order.
Summary for Rev 6:12-14: 6:12-14 ^ap These cataclysmic signs are associated in Scripture with the day of the Lord, when God’s judgment will overturn the whole created order (see Isa 13:4-12 ^aq; 34:1-4 ^ar; Joel 2:1-32 ^as; Zeph 2:1-3 ^at; Mark 13:1-37 ^au).
Summary for Rev 6:15-17: 6:15-17 ^av hid themselves: In the face of God’s judgment, unredeemed people will be terrified and seek a safe hiding place, but in vain (Isa 2:19-21 ^aw; Ezek 38:20 ^ax; Hos 10:8 ^ay; Luke 23:30 ^az). The prophets repeatedly warned that the great day would be a day of wrath and judgment (Isa 13:6-11 ^ba; Joel 1:15 ^bb; Amos 5:18 ^bc; Zeph 1:14-15 ^bd).

• The ultimate question concerning God’s judgment is, who is able to survive? (Mal 3:2 ^be). God’s children will rejoice to see him (Rev 5:13-14 ^bf; 14:3-5 ^bg) because they understand God’s response to the martyrs’ cry for vengeance (6:9-11 ^bh), and they themselves have nothing to fear from God’s judgment (Acts 10:34-36 ^bi; Rom 5:1-2 ^bj). Those who have persecuted God’s people, however, will quake in fear as they face the wrath of the Lamb.

‏ Revelation of John 7

Summary for Rev 7:1-17: 7:1-17 ^bk Three interludes occur in chs 6–14 ^bl (ch 7 ^bm; 10:1–11:14 ^bn; 12:1–14:20 ^bo) to define the place of God’s holy people and to provide perspective on the previous scenes. In this first interlude before the seventh seal is broken, two visions communicate how God protects his people and assures them of his calling.
Summary for Rev 7:1-8: 7:1-8 ^bp The interlude’s first vision shows how God protects his faithful followers from ultimate harm.
Summary for Rev 7:1-3: 7:1-3 ^bq Wait! God calls for a temporary halt by the four angels of destruction.

• The seal of the living God implies membership in God’s household; God owns and protects his people (2 Cor 1:22 ^br; Eph 1:13-14 ^bs). In the ancient world, sealing or tattooing was a sign of ownership.

• The angel ... carrying the seal identified God’s people, answering the question of who would survive God’s wrath (Rev 6:17 ^bt; see Ezek 9:3-8 ^bu; John 17:14-15 ^bv) and furthering the promise of protection (Rev 3:10 ^bw; see also 11:1-2 ^bx).
Summary for Rev 7:4-8: 7:4-8 ^by Who are the 144,000? This listing of the tribes of Israel does not exactly correlate with the twelve physical tribes. Instead, it communicates that God knows precisely which people on earth belong to him. By the AD 90s, Israel’s twelve tribes no longer existed; ten tribes were dispersed when Assyria conquered the northern kingdom of Israel (2 Kgs 17:1-41 ^bz). The early Christian church regarded itself symbolically as the Israel of God (Matt 19:28 ^ca; Rom 2:28-29 ^cb; 9:6-8 ^cc; Gal 3:29 ^cd; 6:16 ^ce; Phil 3:3 ^cf). The 144,000 probably represent all faithful Christians (cp. Rev 14:1-5 ^cg; 21:12-17 ^ch). The list begins appropriately with Judah (the royal tribe of Jesus) but substitutes Manasseh (one of the two tribes of Joseph) for Dan. The tribe of Dan fell into idolatry (Judg 18:14-31 ^ci; 1 Kgs 12:25-30 ^cj), and early Christians regarded it as the epitome of evil.
Summary for Rev 7:9-17: 7:9-17 ^ck The interlude’s second vision shows heaven with an innumerable crowd rejoicing because they are secure in Christ and all tears and sorrows have ended. 7:9 ^cl This vast crowd of believers (7:14 ^cm) is too great to count, fulfilling God’s promises to Abraham (Gen 15:5 ^cn; 17:4-5 ^co; Rom 4:16-24 ^cp; Gal 3:29 ^cq).

• White robes (Rev 6:11 ^cr) and palm branches (John 12:13 ^cs) are ancient symbols of victory and success, adding to the celebration that occurs after God ends the hostile world.
7:10 ^ct Ancient victory parades, heralding the accomplishments of conquerors, included loud chants. The shout of Salvation (“victory,” “deliverance”) honors God’s triumph and prepares readers for his reign.
Summary for Rev 7:11-12: 7:11-12 ^cu The angels, elders, and four living beings all prostrated themselves before God and responded together in a sevenfold (i.e., comprehensive) doxology to recognize God’s eternal nature. The doxology is preceded and followed by Amen—a powerful affirmation of God’s victory.
7:14 ^cv who died in (literally who came out of): See 6:9 ^cw; 20:4 ^cx.

• the great tribulation: A time of horrible and distressing events (see 1:9 ^cy; 2:9-10 ^cz; Deut 4:30-31 ^da; Matt 24:21-22 ^db; Acts 14:22 ^dc).

• They have washed their robes in the blood of the Lamb: This description symbolizes Christ’s redeeming death for them.

• made them white: This description expresses their victory over sin and death and their acceptance by God into eternal life.
7:15 ^dd serve him day and night: Service to God is the continual duty of Christians.

• God’s Temple symbolizes his presence (also 11:19 ^de; cp. 21:22 ^df).
Summary for Rev 7:16-17: 7:16-17 ^dg For desert-dwellers, life-giving water and relief from the scorching sun represent paradise (see also 21:6 ^dh; 22:1 ^di, 17 ^dj; Ps 23:1-2 ^dk; Ezek 47:1-12 ^dl; John 7:37-38 ^dm).

• on the throne (literally on the center of the throne): The Lamb is closely identified with God.

• Christ’s designation as the Shepherd of God’s people (cp. Ps 23 ^dn; Matt 15:24 ^do; John 10:3 ^dp, 11 ^dq, 14 ^dr; Heb 13:20 ^ds; 1 Pet 2:25 ^dt) means that he protects and provides for the sheep, bringing hope and salvation to his people (see Ezek 34:11-16 ^du, 23-24 ^dv).

‏ Revelation of John 8

8:1 ^dw The opening of the seventh seal concludes the first act and dramatically initiates silence, which suggests the mystery of God in his dealings with the world (10:4 ^dx; 1 Kgs 19:11-12 ^dy). Perhaps the mysterious silence here is analogous to God’s rest on the seventh day of creation (Gen 2:1-3 ^dz; see also Heb 4:1-11 ^ea).

• half an hour: This brief hush precedes the unfolding of the second act of divine judgment when God will answer the prayers of his people.
Summary for Rev 8:6-9:21: 8:2–11:19 ^eb The second cycle of judgments is structured around seven trumpets. Like the first cycle (6:1–8:1 ^ec), this one contains an interlude (10:1–11:14 ^ed; cp. 7:1-17 ^ee) and ends with a glimpse of God’s eternal Kingdom (11:15-19 ^ef; see 7:9–8:1 ^eg).

• The trumpet judgments are reminiscent of the ten plagues of Egypt (Exod 7:14–11:10 ^eh) and have the same purpose—to show the powerlessness of earthly gods (or satanic powers) and to demonstrate beyond doubt the power and sovereignty of God.
Summary for Rev 8:2-6: 8:2-6 ^ei This scene of preparation in heaven introduces the seven trumpets of judgment and continues the theme of God’s receiving and answering prayer (5:8 ^ej; 6:9-11 ^ek). 8:2 ^el The dramatic sounding of trumpets by angels heralds an approaching end (see Isa 27:13 ^em; Zech 9:14 ^en; Matt 24:31 ^eo; 1 Cor 15:52 ^ep; 1 Thes 4:16 ^eq).
Summary for Rev 8:3-4: 8:3-4 ^er The prayers of God’s people ask for God’s ultimate justice and judgment (6:10-11 ^es; see also 5:8 ^et; Ezra 9:5-6 ^eu; Ps 141:2 ^ev; Dan 9:21 ^ew). The mixture of incense and prayers that reaches God’s presence shows that God hears their prayers (see Rev 6:9-11 ^ex) and is prepared to act.
8:5 ^ey The action of the angel, as he throws fire ... down upon the earth, signals the dramatic beginning of God’s judgment (see Gen 19:24 ^ez; Exod 9:23 ^fa; Lev 10:2 ^fb; Deut 9:3 ^fc; 2 Kgs 1:10 ^fd).

• thunder ... lightning ... earthquake: These earthly portents remind us of God’s power, presence, and judgment (also Rev 11:19 ^fe; 16:18 ^ff; see Exod 19:18-19 ^fg; 1 Kgs 19:11-12 ^fh; Isa 29:6 ^fi).
Summary for Rev 8:7-12: 8:7-12 ^fj Each of the first four trumpets affects one-third of its target (see Ezek 5:1-4 ^fk, 12 ^fl; Zech 13:8 ^fm). The point is not to convey an exact measurement; instead, it indicates that God’s judgment on the earth is beginning but has not reached its zenith. Together, the first four trumpets form a unified message of judgment on the whole physical world (as with Rev 6:1-8 ^fn). 8:7 ^fo Hail and fire mixed with blood signal the destruction of plant life, as did the seventh plague on Egypt (see Exod 9:13-35 ^fp; Joel 2:31 ^fq; Acts 2:19 ^fr).

• all the green grass was burned: Nothing escapes God’s judgment.

• This vision need not be harmonized with Rev 9:4 ^fs because each scene is self-contained and communicates its own message.
Summary for Rev 8:8-9: 8:8-9 ^ft water ... became blood: This judgment is similar to the first plague on Egypt (see Exod 7:14-25 ^fu; Ps 78:44 ^fv).

• The mountain of fire suggests something similar to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 that brought bloody destruction to ships and sea life (see Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.16.1-22).
Summary for Rev 8:10-11: 8:10-11 ^fw The star named Bitterness (literally wormwood, a shrubby plant yielding a bitter extract) is symbolic rather than physical. Bitter water is connected with judgment from early in Israel’s national experience (Exod 15:22-26 ^fx; Num 5:18 ^fy; Jer 9:13-16 ^fz; 23:15 ^ga). The message is that wide-scale judgment has begun.
8:12 ^gb the fourth angel: On the fourth day of creation, God made the sun ... the moon, and ... the stars (Gen 1:14-19 ^gc).

• the day was dark: This judgment replicates the ninth plague in Egypt (Exod 10:21-23 ^gd).
8:13 ^ge The ancients regarded the eagle as a symbolic messenger of God (see 4 Ezra 11:7-8; 2 Baruch 77:19-26).

• Terror, terror, terror: A threefold announcement would be recognized as a message from God (see Acts 10:16 ^gf).

• The terror (Greek ouai) that sounded like an eagle’s screech was directed against humans of this world who were not among God’s faithful people (Rev 6:10 ^gg; 9:4 ^gh, 20 ^gi).

‏ Revelation of John 9

Summary for Rev 9:1-21: 9:1-21 ^gj The fifth and sixth trumpets demonstrate how God’s judgment affects the people of the world and detail how futile it is to resist God. While these judgments should lead to repentance, they do not. Sin has such control over people that they choose to worship the evil forces that torture and murder them rather than repent and turn to God.
Summary for Rev 9:1-12: 9:1-12 ^gk The fifth ... trumpet, the first of the three terrors (8:13 ^gl), brings the judgment of locusts from the bottomless pit, a place of horror. Ancient cultures viewed the oceanic depths, or the “abyss,” as a dwelling place of demonic forces (see study note on Gen 1:2).
9:2 ^gm The smoke from the pit turned the sky dark, as in the plague on Egypt (Exod 10:21-29 ^gn; see Matt 27:45 ^go).
Summary for Rev 9:3-4: 9:3-4 ^gp The locusts ... from the smoke with their power to sting like scorpions are fiercer than those of the Egyptian plague (see Exod 10:14-15 ^gq). Rather than eating plants, these locusts are like stinging scorpions that viciously attack people. Only people without the seal of God (see Rev 7:1-8 ^gr) receive this painful judgment. While the stings cause painful torture, they are not life-threatening (9:5-6 ^gs).
9:5 ^gt torture them for five months: This time period is a symbolically complete number based on the fingers on a hand. It is also the normal life span of locusts, suggesting that their entire purpose was to torture people.
Summary for Rev 9:7-10: 9:7-10 ^gu While some see these locusts as symbolic of attack helicopters, missiles, or other modern armaments, they come from the “bottomless pit” rather than from human engineering. The description of these creatures, derived from the physical appearance of locusts, is intended to cause revulsion and terror.

• Their gold crowns indicate that their torment dominates much of the earth.
9:11 ^gv The king of the locusts is identified in three ways: (1) as the angel from the bottomless pit (probably different from the fallen star, 9:1 ^gw, who unlocked the abyss rather than coming from it); (2) as Abaddon (“destruction”), often paired with death (see Job 28:22 ^gx; Ps 88:11 ^gy); and (3) as Apollyon—the Destroyer (see 1 Cor 10:10 ^gz).

• Although John makes no direct connection between the devil and this king of the locusts, the prince of demons is linked with Satan in the Gospels (Mark 3:22-26 ^ha; see Matt 12:24-27 ^hb; Luke 11:15-18 ^hc). The New Testament also identifies the devil as the prince of this world (John 12:31 ^hd; 14:30 ^he; 16:11 ^hf) and as the prince of the power of the air (Eph 2:2 ^hg), so he probably represents Satan. There is also a connection with the Roman emperor Domitian, whose patron god Apollo was symbolized by the locust.
Summary for Rev 9:13-14: 9:13-14 ^hh The four horns of the gold altar (see 8:3 ^hi) are introduced with the sixth trumpet blast. Many excavations have uncovered altars with pointed horns at their four corners (see study note on Exod 27:2).

• The voice carries the authority of God in the command to release the four angels.

• These angels have been bound, suggesting their evil nature (cp. Rev 20:2 ^hj; 1 Enoch 10; contrast Rev 7:1 ^hk). Their location at the great Euphrates River probably refers to Assyria and Babylon, empires that had devastated the kingdoms of Israel and Judah and thus were symbols of destruction (see 2 Kgs 17:22-24 ^hl; 25:1-11 ^hm).
9:15 ^hn hour and day and month and year: The fourfold time designation for releasing the four angels confirms that even evil forces must observe God’s timing.
9:16 ^ho The relationship of the four angels to their army is not clear.

• 200 million: This figure represents an innumerable multitude. Even at its greatest strength, the ancient Roman army with twenty-one legions numbered only about 126,000 soldiers. It is unproductive to use this number in attempting to identify any specific country with such an overwhelming destructive force.
Summary for Rev 9:17-19: 9:17-19 ^hp The riders had armor in colors that matched the plagues of their horses, with red for fire, blue for smoke, and yellow for sulfur—all of which are signs of judgment in Scripture (see 14:10-11 ^hq; 19:20 ^hr; Gen 19:24-28 ^hs; Ps 11:6 ^ht; Ezek 38:22 ^hu; Luke 17:29 ^hv).

• The horses are reminiscent of the terrifying monsters of Greek tales pictured on ancient buildings and celebrated in ancient dramas.

• One-third: See study note on Rev 8:7-12.
Summary for Rev 9:20-21: 9:20-21 ^hw Even when humans are faced with plagues and death, repentance is not automatic. People tend to continue in their evil deeds and to worship demons and idols—things that belong to the created order—rather than worshiping the Creator (see 13:4 ^hx; 14:9-10 ^hy; Rom 1:25 ^hz; 1 Cor 8:4 ^ia; 10:19-22 ^ib).

• murders ... witchcraft ... immorality ... thefts: What people worship parallels the ways in which they live (see Rev 21:8 ^ic; 22:15 ^id; Rom 1:23 ^ie, 29-32 ^if).

• Revelation portrays the extent to which depravity controls unbelievers. It is not logical for people to worship powers and beings that torture and kill them; the powers of sin and rebellion against God are deceptively captivating.

‏ Revelation of John 10

Summary for Rev 10:1-11:14: 10:1–11:14 ^ig This interlude between the sixth and seventh trumpets is divided into two parts: (1) the seven thunders and the small scroll (10:1-11 ^ih), and (2) the two witnesses (11:1-13 ⁱⁱ). The interlude ends with the announcement that the second terror is finished (11:14 ^ij). 10:1 ^ik another mighty angel (see 5:2 ^il; 7:2 ^im; cp. 1:12-16 ⁱⁿ): This angel appears similar to the huge bronze Colossus that stood as a symbol of human power in the harbor of Rhodes for several decades before it was toppled by an earthquake in the late 200s BC. The statue still lay broken at the time that John wrote Revelation. It was about 100 feet tall and represented the sun god, Helios. The angel was surrounded by a cloud, suggesting that he dwarfed the Rhodes statue and, by implication, all idols. The rainbow over his head is a reminder that the enthroned God is encircled by a rainbow (4:3 ^io), a biblical symbol of God’s covenant with humanity (Gen 9:8-17 ^ip).
Summary for Rev 10:2-3: 10:2-3 ^iq Although the scroll is small, it is not unimportant. It reveals a small yet critical part of God’s purposes in events still to come before eternity begins.

• he gave a great shout: Cp. Job 37:2-5 ^ir; Ps 18:13 ^is; 29:3-4 ^it.
10:4 ^iu Revelation reveals God’s intentions in the world without eliminating the mystery of God’s ways. The martyrs did not receive an immediate answer to their cries (6:10 ^iv), the meaning of the seventh seal is cloaked in silence (8:1 ^iw), and here the seven thunders are kept secret (cp. Dan 12:9 ^ix).
Summary for Rev 10:5-6: 10:5-6 ^iy While raising one’s right hand is common in taking an oath today, it is rare in biblical literature (cp. Gen 14:22 ^iz; 24:9 ^ja; Dan 12:7 ^jb).

• When making an oath, Jews were very careful not to swear lightly by God’s name (see Exod 20:7 ^jc). Jesus also rebuked insincere oath-taking (see Matt 5:33-37 ^jd; 23:16-22 ^je). When God swore an oath, he did so in his own name as the highest possible point of reference (see Gen 22:16 ^jf; Ps 89:35-36 ^jg; Jer 22:5 ^jh; Heb 6:13-18 ^ji).
10:7 ^jj angel blows his trumpet: See 1 Cor 15:51-54 ^jk; 1 Thes 4:16 ^jl.

• God’s mysterious plan for the world is no surprise; the prophets who served God in the past warned that the day of the Lord would come (see Joel 2:1-3 ^jm, 10-11 ^jn; Amos 5:18-20 ^jo; Zeph 1:14-18 ^jp).
Summary for Rev 10:8-10: 10:8-10 ^jq As in Ezekiel’s experience, the scroll tasted sweet in the mouth (Ezek 3:1-3 ^jr; see Jer 15:16 ^js; see also Pss 19:10 ^jt; 119:103 ^ju). The experiences yet to come for God’s people would be sweet, including the victory of God’s plan and the vindication of his people. John’s sour ... stomach resembles the effects of Ezekiel’s hard message for Israel (Ezek 3:8-9 ^jv). The process of bringing God’s plan to fruition involves hardship.
10:11 ^jw Unlike Ezekiel, who prophesied for Israel alone, John must prophesy ... about (or against) all the people of the world. There is debate whether “about” or “against” is the best translation; “about” allows for both promise and judgment (see both in 21:24-27 ^jx).

‏ Revelation of John 11

Summary for Rev 11:1-13: 11:1-13 ^jy This section pictures the willful rejection of God’s continuing call for repentance. The many attempts to silence his witnesses ultimately fail, and God triumphs.

• Many attempts have been made to identify the two witnesses of this chapter. Moses and Elijah, who appeared with Jesus at the transfiguration (Matt 17:3 ^jz; Mark 9:4 ^ka; Luke 9:30 ^kb), are likely candidates (see Rev 11:6 ^kc); they represent the law and the prophets. Others have suggested Enoch and Elijah because they did not die (see Gen 5:21-24 ^kd; 2 Kgs 2:11-12 ^ke). Other possibilities include Peter and Paul, or James and John. More important than their identities is their role of confirming God’s message by the testimony of “two or three witnesses” (see Deut 17:6 ^kf). God provides a twofold witness to the world about the impending judgment, making it clear that his word is certain to be fulfilled (Deut 19:15 ^kg; Matt 18:15-16 ^kh). 11:1 ^ki The instructions to measure the Temple are reminiscent of Ezekiel’s visions (see Ezek 40–42 ^kj; 43:13-17 ^kk). The Jerusalem Temple was destroyed by the Romans in AD 70; these details symbolize God’s precise knowledge of and care for his people who belong to him (cp. Rev 7:2-4 ^kl; Zech 2:1-5 ^km).
Summary for Rev 11:2-3: 11:2-3 ^kn The outer courtyard in the Jerusalem Temple, outside the stone warning fence, was regarded as the place for the Gentile nations. John makes a clear distinction between the people God recognizes and those he does not.

• The 42 months and 1,260 days refer to a period of three and a half years, or a broken seven (see study notes on Dan 7:24-25; 8:26; 9:24-27). John repeatedly uses these time designations in Revelation when persecution is evident and evil appears to dominate the world. God’s people will be secure in him (see study note on Rev 11:1) even though God allows evil forces to persecute them (see 13:7 ^ko; Mark 10:30 ^kp).
11:3 ^kq During the period of persecution, God will not abandon the world but will send his two witnesses to proclaim the coming judgment, just as God sent Jonah to Nineveh (Jon 1:2 ^kr; 4:11 ^ks).

• Clothing made of burlap was symbolic of mourning or repentance (see Gen 37:34 ^kt; 2 Sam 3:31 ^ku; Neh 9:1 ^kv; Esth 4:1 ^kw; Jon 3:6 ^kx).
11:4 ^ky two olive trees and ... two lampstands: See study note on 1:12; see also Exod 25:31-40 ^kz; Zech 4:2-6 ^la.
11:5 ^lb In one of the psalms, God is portrayed with fire coming from his mouth, a picture of judgment on his enemies (Ps 18:8 ^lc; see also 2 Sam 22:9 ^ld). Cp. Elijah, 2 Kgs 1:1-15 ^le.
11:6 ^lf These two witnesses were given power to stop the rain and bring down plagues, as were Elijah (see 1 Kgs 17:1 ^lg; 18:41-46 ^lh) and Moses (see Exod 7:14-24 ^li; 8:1–11:10 ^lj).
Summary for Rev 11:7-8: 11:7-8 ^lk When the witnesses finish their testimony, the scene changes dramatically. The beast (cp. 13:1 ^ll) is introduced for the first time; it is associated with the bottomless pit. Like all enemies of God, the beast engages in war against God’s witnesses, and he kills them.
11:8 ^lm their bodies will lie in the main street: Evil is so vindictive that it even desecrates the dead.

• Jerusalem (literally the great city): The designation “the great city” would have immediately suggested Rome to early readers (16:19 ^ln; 17:18 ^lo; 18:10 ^lp, 16 ^lq, 18-19 ^lr, 21 ^ls). But John also describes it as the city where their Lord was crucified as well as Sodom and Egypt—all places that were hostile to God and his people (see also 17:5 ^lt, 9 ^lu).

• where their Lord was crucified: There is a direct connection between how the Lord was treated by evil forces and the experience of persecuted Christians (see Acts 9:5 ^lv).
11:9 ^lw Leaving people’s bodies out for public display was a way to dishonor them after their death (see 1 Sam 31:10 ^lx; the usual Roman custom was to leave bodies hanging after crucifixion).

• peoples, tribes, languages, and nations: All the peoples of the world are represented in this exhibition.
11:10 ^ly All the people ... will gloat and celebrate: God’s enemies despise and reject his messengers.
11:11 ^lz The death of the two witnesses is not the end of their ministry. God was not defeated in the death of Jesus and he will not be defeated in the slaughter of his witnesses. The God of the resurrection breathed life into the dead so that they stood up (see Ezek 37:3-5 ^ma, 10 ^mb), leaving no doubt about God’s power.

• Terror struck: It is a fearful experience for sinful humans to face the power of the living God (see Heb 10:31 ^mc).
11:12 ^md they rose to heaven in a cloud: The event is reminiscent of the ascent of Jesus (see Acts 1:9 ^me) and others (see 2 Kgs 2:11-12 ^mf; 1 Thes 4:17 ^mg).
11:13 ^mh An earthquake often accompanies key moments in biblical history (see Exod 19:18 ^mi; 1 Kgs 19:11-12 ^mj; Matt 27:51 ^mk).

• Seven thousand: The number who died shows God’s involvement in judgment (contrast 1 Kgs 19:18 ^ml).

• everyone else ... gave glory to the God of heaven: Those who survived the earthquake were forced to acknowledge God’s power and sovereignty over the world (see Phil 2:9-11 ^mm).
Summary for Rev 11:15-19: 11:15-19 ^mn The seventh trumpet (“the third terror,” 11:14 ^mo; see also 9:12 ^mp) presents a scene of final judgment and the eternal Kingdom. As in 7:9-17 ^mq, this scene provides a dramatic window into the ultimate Christian hope with God. In the midst of a picture of judgment, the reader is reminded of eternity with God. 11:15 ^mr Loud voices in the court of heaven sing a victory hymn; the earth has been transformed into the realm of our Lord and his Christ, who is enthroned as king forever.
Summary for Rev 11:16-18: 11:16-18 ^ms The twenty-four elders, representing the people of God, confirm God’s victorious enthronement (see study note on 4:4). Their worship acknowledges God’s sovereign rule as the Almighty (see 4:10-11 ^mt; 5:8-10 ^mu).
11:17 ^mv The thanksgiving prayer describes God as the one who is and who always was; the description “is still to come” (see 1:4 ^mw, 8 ^mx) no longer applies, because in this scene eternity has come and God has begun to reign.
11:18 ^my The nations were filled with wrath when they refused to do as God commanded (see Ps 2 ^mz). But things will now be different because God’s wrath has come. God will reward his holy people (see Rev 22:12 ^na) with new life as his children (see John 1:12 ^nb; 20:31 ^nc).

• fear your name: God’s name implies his nature; fearing God’s name means accepting who he is (see thematic note for Fear of the Lord at end of chapter).

• The end of the age will be the time to destroy those who have not accepted God’s love (see John 3:16-20 ^nd). They will go into the lake of fire (Rev 20:15 ^ne). This doom of God’s enemies is the third and final terror (11:14 ^nf).
11:19 ^ng This verse provides a dramatic conclusion to the first half of Revelation and a link to the second half.

• In this scene, the Temple and the Ark are symbols of God’s presence; the earthly Ark was the copy of the design of the Ark in heaven (see Exod 25:40 ^nh; Heb 8:5 ⁿⁱ).

Thematic note: Fear of the Lord
As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13 ^nj; 10:12-21 ^nk; 31:9-13 ^nl). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14 ^nm). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.
The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the Lord is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7 ⁿⁿ). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7 ^no; 15:33 ^np). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 ^nq labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.
Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28 ^nr; Prov 14:2 ^ns; Eccl 12:13 ^nt). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16 ^nu; Col 2:3 ^nv).

Passages for Further Study
Job 28:28 ^nw; Pss 14:1 ^nx; 111:10 ^ny; Prov 1:7 ^nz; 3:7 ^oa; 8:13 ^ob; 9:10 ^oc; 10:27 ^od; 14:2 ^oe, 26-27 ^of; 15:16 ^og, 33 ^oh; 19:23 ^oi; 22:4 ^oj; Eccl 12:13 ^ok; Isa 11:1-2 ^ol; 33:6 ^om

‏ Revelation of John 12

Summary for Rev 12:1-14:20: 12:1–14:20 ^on The people of God, portrayed as a woman who brings forth the Messiah, are under attack by the devil even though he has already been defeated (12:1-17 ^oo). With his two minions, the beast and the false prophet, Satan attempts to continue controlling the world (13:1-18 ^op) before the final confrontation with the Lord (14:1-20 ^oq).
Summary for Rev 12:1-17: 12:1-17 ^or Satan (pictured as a dragon) plots to challenge God’s purposes but is thwarted. Having failed in direct confrontation with God and Christ, he attempts to attack God’s people. Three brief scenes present an overview of the story (12:1-6 ^os), followed by elaborations of the war in heaven (12:7-9 ^ot) and the war on earth (12:13-17 ^ou). 12:1 ^ov The number twelve suggests that the woman represents God’s people (cp. 12:15-17 ^ow; see Jer 2:32 ^ox; 2 Cor 11:2 ^oy; Eph 5:32 ^oz), from whom came the Messiah. This woman is marked by God’s glory in contrast with the prostitute (see Rev 17:1-6 ^pa), who is destined for destruction.
12:2 ^pb The symbolic woman going through the agony of labor portrays Christ’s birth, reflecting the biblical theme of Israel’s trauma while waiting to be delivered (see Isa 26:16-18 ^pc; Jer 4:31 ^pd; Mic 4:9-10 ^pe; John 16:21 ^pf).
Summary for Rev 12:3-4: 12:3-4 ^pg The large red dragon represents Satan (see 12:9 ^ph).

• seven heads and ten horns: The numbers represent a mixture of divine and created powers (see 17:7-14 ^pi).

• The historic battle between evil and the people of God is staged in cosmic dimensions (see Gen 3:1-7 ^pj, 14-15 ^pk; Job 1:9-12 ^pl).

• Herod’s desire to kill Jesus embodied Satan’s attempt to devour her baby after it was born (see Matt 2:7-8 ^pm, 16 ^pn).
12:5 ^po Jesus was the son who was to rule all nations (see Luke 1:31-33 ^pp; 2:30-32 ^pq; cp. Ps 2:6-12 ^pr).

• Although Jesus was killed by agents of the devil, he was snatched away from the dragon and raised from the dead (Matt 28:6 ^ps; Mark 10:33-34 ^pt; 16:6 ^pu; 1 Cor 15:3-4 ^pv). Jesus’ entire life on earth, from his birth to his death and resurrection, is compressed into this scene.

• caught up to God and to his throne: See Acts 1:9-11 ^pw.
12:6 ^px Like the people of Israel who were spiritually refined in the wilderness (see Hos 2:14-15 ^py; Acts 7:38-45 ^pz) and in exile (see Isa 5:13 ^qa; Ezek 12:1-3 ^qb), the Christian church must face its own wilderness. Revelation presents messages of endurance and perseverance in the face of trouble and shows that God provides places of refuge and avenues of escape for his people (cp. 1 Cor 10:13 ^qc). 1,260 days: See study note on Rev 11:2-3.
Summary for Rev 12:7-9: 12:7-9 ^qd This scene clarifies the dragon’s identity and power.

• God dispatches Michael, the warrior archangel (see Dan 12:1 ^qe; Jude 1:9 ^qf), to confront the dragon and his angels. God does not have to engage in the battle himself (see Matt 26:53 ^qg), and Satan is defeated.
Summary for Rev 12:10-11: 12:10-11 ^qh Satan’s defeat is encouraging for Christians who, like the recipients of Revelation, are not afraid to die (see John 12:24-26 ^qi).
12:13 ^qj When the dragon realized: The scene picks up from 12:9 ^qk.
12:14 ^ql two wings ... of a great eagle (see Exod 19:4-6 ^qm; Deut 32:10-11 ^qn; Isa 40:29-31 ^qo): God strengthens his people; he does not promise that they will escape persecution or death.

• a time, times, and half a time: Usually understood as three and a half years (see Rev 11:2-3 ^qp).
Summary for Rev 12:15-16: 12:15-16 ^qq John pictures Satan as Leviathan (cp. Job 41:1 ^qr) trying to destroy God’s people (the woman; see study note on Rev 12:1). The protective earth responds and the waters of chaos are contained, as at creation (cp. Gen 1:2 ^qs, 6-7 ^qt, 9-10 ^qu).
12:17 ^qv The dragon turns his hostility against the woman’s children (believers) who keep God’s commandments and continue in their testimony for Jesus.
Summary for Rev 12:18-13:18: 12:18–13:18 ^qw John portrays the dragon conducting its war (12:17 ^qx) through two beasts who with Satan form an evil trinity. 12:18 ^qy on the shore beside the sea: By contrast, the Lamb stands on the rock of Zion (14:1 ^qz).

‏ Revelation of John 13

Summary for Rev 13:1-10: 13:1-10 ^ra The first beast is the second member of the evil trinity (see study note on 12:18–13:18) and should probably be identified with Roman power (see thematic note for Four World Empires at end of chapter). 13:1 ^rb The beast emerges from the sea (symbolizing evil). Like the dragon, it has seven heads and ten horns (see 12:3 ^rc). The crowns represent its political and military power (cp. 17:3 ^rd, 7-11 ^re; Dan 7:7 ^rf, 19-20 ^rg) and indicate that Satan is the head of this beast’s empire.
13:2 ^rh Satan makes the beast a pseudo-deity by giving it his power, throne, and authority. In the first century, Roman emperors increasingly claimed divinity.
13:3 ^ri Satan often imitates God. Here the beast mimics the death and resurrection of Jesus.

• That one of the heads had been fatally wounded but was healed has led to its identification with Nero. A tradition emerged that the emperor Nero (AD 54–68) was so evil that he either did not really die or would be reincarnated as another tyrant like Domitian (AD 81–96). In 17:9-10 ^rj, the beast’s seven heads are linked both to seven hills (Rome) and to seven kings.
Summary for Rev 13:5-8: 13:5-8 ^rk The four characteristics of the beast are that he (1) blasphemes God, (2) has authority for a limited time, (3) makes war against God’s people, and (4) rules the world. But God is in control. 13:5 ^rl The forty-two months are the three and a half years of persecution and evil domination (see study note on 11:2-3).
13:7 ^rm The beast’s authority extends over all the people of the world.
13:8 ^rn Those who worshiped the beast receive its mark (13:15-17 ^ro) and are not listed in the Book of Life (see 20:12 ^rp).
Summary for Rev 13:9-10: 13:9-10 ^rq The scene (13:1-10 ^rr) ends with a dramatic conclusion patterned on Jer 15:2 ^rs; 43:11 ^rt. Anyone with ears to hear must pay attention, because judgment is coming (cp. Rev 2:7 ^ru, 11 ^rv, 17 ^rw).
13:10 ^rx God’s holy people are summoned to endure and remain faithful while experiencing temporary persecution.
Summary for Rev 13:11-18: 13:11-18 ^ry another beast: This second beast, the third member of the evil trinity (see study note on 12:18–13:18), is later called the “false prophet” (16:13 ^rz). As a high priest of false religion, he leads the world into worshiping the first beast and the dragon (see also 16:13-14 ^sa). 13:11 ^sb The beast is portrayed as a lamb, the same symbol used to represent Christ (see 5:6-13 ^sc; 7:9-17 ^sd; 14:1-4 ^se), but this lamb spoke like a dragon. The image is of a fraudulent messiah.

• The two horns might stand for two emperors, perhaps Nero and Domitian.
Summary for Rev 13:12-15: 13:12-15 ^sf The second beast derives its power from the first beast, which in turn answers to the dragon (13:4 ^sg). 13:12 ^sh he required ... people to worship the first beast: Imperial Rome demanded worship of the emperor Domitian.

• whose fatal wound had been healed: This description might refer to Domitian, who was viewed as the reincarnation of Nero (see study note on 13:3). The image is a picture of the constant reemergence of evil, particularly in the latter days (see study note on 17:8).
Summary for Rev 13:13-15: 13:13-15 ^si In New Testament times, false prophets astounded people with reports of divine visitations and of idols speaking for the gods they represented (see Acts 16:16-18 ^sj; 1 Cor 12:2-3 ^sk). Such practices involved worship of demons (see 1 Cor 10:20-21 ^sl) and were epitomized in the Roman emperor cult. Those who refused to conform were put to death.
Summary for Rev 13:14-15: 13:14-15 ^sm he was allowed. ... He was then permitted: God never relinquishes ultimate authority. These creatures of evil have been allowed to rebel against God, but they are not in control.
Summary for Rev 13:16-17: 13:16-17 ^sn small and great, rich and poor, free and slave: All humanity is required to accept the beast’s evil mark of ownership (see 14:9 ^so, 11 ^sp; 19:20 ^sq; 20:4 ^sr), a precondition for all commerce (the right to buy or sell). The text does not explicitly tell us what the mark is or looks like.

• On the right hand or on the forehead suggests the branding of slaves—the beast owns them.

• the number representing his name: In both Hebrew and Greek, letters of the alphabet represent numbers, which gave names a numerical value (13:18 ^ss).
13:18 ^st Wisdom is needed: John is giving a clue to help his readers solve the meaning of the beast’s number.

• of a man: John hides the man’s identity, perhaps because revealing the name would place him and his readers in danger (cp. use of Babylon as a symbol for Rome, 17:9 ^su).

• The number 666 represents supernatural evil (see thematic note for Symbolic Numbers at end of chapter). John might have used the transliteration Caesar Neron (a Hebrew spelling of the name) to arrive at the number 666. Later scribes, who spoke Greek but not Hebrew, corrected the number to 616 in some manuscripts, probably to match the name’s numerical value in Greek.

Thematic note: Four World Empires
Two panoramic visions in Daniel present God’s sovereignty over history. Nebuchadnezzar had the first vision (ch 2 ^sv), and Daniel had another like it (ch 7 ^sw). In each of these visions, four of the kingdoms of the world are presented.
There have always been questions about the identities of the four empires, but historically there has also been considerable consensus. Hippolytus (AD 170–236), one of the early church fathers, identified the four kingdoms as Babylonia, Media-Persia, Greece, and Rome. The church father and historian Eusebius of Caesarea (AD 260–340) initially identified the first kingdom as Assyria (which once also controlled Babylon), but he later agreed with Hippolytus, as did most of the church fathers. Later, Jerome and Augustine accepted this same understanding, and conservative interpreters largely still agree.
In antiquity and in our era, some interpreters have argued that Greece is the fourth empire, treating Media and Persia as separate kingdoms. This interpretation is due in part to denying the possibility of prediction, assuming the book was written before the Roman Empire had arisen. But Media and Persia are usually regarded as one empire, and the Median kingdom had been mostly assimilated by the Persians by the time Cyrus II conquered Babylon in 539 BC.
Rome is then seen as the fourth kingdom, but the bestial, demonic, and inhumane characteristics of the vision extend beyond the historical Rome. The visions also represent a panorama of the whole world and its governments; all will be destroyed and replaced by the Kingdom of God, the “rock . . . cut from a mountain” (2:34 ^sx). The metals of the statue become progressively less valuable in chapter 2 ^sy, while the animal imagery of chapter 7 ^sz becomes more menacingly fierce, violent, and inhumane. These features represent a deterioration of human civilization across the centuries, even as the Kingdom of God grows in power and stature (2:35 ^ta).

Passages for Further Study
Dan 2:1-49 ^tb; 7:1-28 ^tc

Thematic note: Symbolic Numbers
Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.
The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4 ^td; Gal 3:20 ^te; Jas 2:19 ^tf). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6 ^tg; Rev 11:3 ^th), and three can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2 ^ti; 2 Cor 13:14 ^tj; Rev 1:4-5 ^tk). Four can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8 ^tl; 6:1-8 ^tm; 7:1 ^tn) and in Genesis ^to by four rivers (Gen 2:10-14 ^tp). When three and four are added to make seven, they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of three by four yields twelve, the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26 ^tq; Exod 24:4 ^tr; 28:21 ^ts; Num 17:2 ^tt; Josh 4:3-8 ^tu; 1 Kgs 18:31 ^tv; Matt 10:1-4 ^tw; 19:28 ^tx; Jas 1:1 ^ty; Rev 12:1 ^tz; 21:12–22:2 ^ua. The number five and its multiples, such as ten, represent human completeness (e.g., five fingers per hand); and six carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (five) nor divinely complete (seven).
Multiples of ten (e.g., forty) are a symbolic way to indicate many, whereas three sixes (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18 ^ub). One thousand is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8 ^uc); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4 ^ud; 14:1 ^ue). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as myriads, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.
While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32 ^uf). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.

Passages for Further Study
Gen 2:2-3 ^ug; 4:15 ^uh; 15:13 ^ui; 41:53-54 ^uj; Exod 20:6 ^uk; 25:31-37 ^ul; 32:15 ^um; Lev 16:14 ^un; 23:16 ^uo; 2 Sam 24:13 ^up; 1 Kgs 4:26 ^uq; 17:21 ^ur; 18:31 ^us, 43-44 ^ut; Job 1:2 ^uu; Ps 90:4 ^uv; Jer 15:3 ^uw; 49:36 ^ux; Ezek 14:21 ^uy; Dan 4:16 ^uz, 23-25 ^va; 7:3 ^vb, 17 ^vc, 24 ^vd; Zech 4:2 ^ve; 6:1 ^vf; Matt 10:1-5 ^vg; 12:40 ^vh; 18:21-22 ^vi; Mark 6:7 ^vj; Luke 15:8 ^vk; Acts 6:3 ^vl; 10:16 ^vm; 1 Cor 8:6 ^vn; Eph 4:4-6 ^vo; 2 Pet 3:8 ^vp; Rev 1:16 ^vq; 2:10 ^vr; 4:4 ^vs; 6:1 ^vt; 7:1 ^vu, 4-8 ^vv; 12:1 ^vw, 3 ^vx; 13:1 ^vy; 17:3-14 ^vz; 20:2-7 ^wa; 21:12-21 ^wb

‏ Revelation of John 14

Summary for Rev 14:1-5: 14:1-5 ^wc The true Lamb and his followers starkly contrast with the evil trinity. 14:1 ^wd standing: See 5:6 ^we; study note on 12:18.

• 144,000: God’s righteous remnant (see study note on 7:4-8).

• The brand on their foreheads (contrast 13:16-17 ^wf) is the name of both the Lamb and his Father, reflecting the union of Jesus and the Father (see John 5:20-23 ^wg; 14:5-10 ^wh; 17:22 ^wi).
Summary for Rev 14:2-3: 14:2-3 ^wj This great choir sang a . . . new song that only those who had been redeemed from the earth could learn. These people had died and were already with the Lord, which might explain why John did not include the content of their refrain for readers still in the battle of life (cp. 2 Cor 12:4 ^wk).
Summary for Rev 14:4-5: 14:4-5 ^wl These warriors were ritually pure (unpolluted) and morally without blame.

• They have kept themselves as pure as virgins: Referring to men as virgins is a metaphor for the faithfulness of God’s people. The image might refer to the church as the virgin bride of Christ (see 2 Cor 11:2 ^wm; Eph 5:25-27 ^wn); it also suggests that the church constitutes soldiers in a holy war that are required to keep themselves chaste (see Deut 23:9-10 ^wo; 1 Sam 21:5 ^wp).

• These faithful people are a special offering (literally firstfruits; see Exod 13:14-16 ^wq; 23:19 ^wr; Lev 23:9-14 ^ws; Num 3:40-51 ^wt; 18:15-20 ^wu; Luke 2:22-24 ^wv) who have been purchased for God.

• They have told no lies: John teaches that liars will never enter heaven (Rev 21:8 ^ww, 27 ^wx; 22:15 ^wy; see also John 8:44 ^wz). The followers of Jesus speak and live the truth (see also John 8:32 ^xa; 14:6 ^xb).
Summary for Rev 14:6-13: 14:6-13 ^xc Three angels are flying through the sky with messages from God.
Summary for Rev 14:6-7: 14:6-7 ^xd The first angel proclaims the eternal Good News, which includes the message that God will sit as judge—the end is near, so this message provides a last-chance summons to repentance.
14:8 ^xe Babylon is probably a cryptic designation for Rome (see 16:19 ^xf; 17:5-9 ^xg); it represents earthly power and corruption. The coming of God as judge (14:7 ^xh) includes the end of earthly powers.
Summary for Rev 14:9-11: 14:9-11 ^xi The third angel announces God’s judgment (14:7 ^xj) on the counterfeit worship of the beast and his statue (see 13:12-18 ^xk; 19:20 ^xl; 20:4 ^xm). God’s response to the rebellion against his reign is anger or wrath, pictured as a cup of bitter wine (see ch 16 ^xn; 19:15 ^xo).

• fire and burning sulfur ... smoke: This description of judgment (see also 19:20 ^xp; 20:10 ^xq, 14-15 ^xr) echoes God’s judgment of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 18:16–19:28 ^xs).

• Those condemned to a fiery end will suffer in the presence of the holy angels and the Lamb (cp. Luke 16:22-24 ^xt).
14:12 ^xu The threat of persecution and death was very real to the Christians first reading this letter, so John calls God’s people to obedience and faithfulness (see 2:10 ^xv; 3:10 ^xw; 12:17 ^xx; 13:10 ^xy).
14:13 ^xz A dramatic voice from heaven once again instructs John to write (see 1:11 ^ya, 19 ^yb; 21:5 ^yc; cp. 10:4 ^yd).

• Blessed are those who die in the Lord: God desires that those who endure persecution be with him and enjoy his blessings and rest.

• The mention of hard work and good deeds in connection with eternal reward foreshadows the assigning of rewards based on works (20:12 ^ye).
Summary for Rev 14:14-20: 14:14-20 ^yf Two brief scenes portray God’s judgment. 14:14 ^yg the Son of Man: Or like a son of man; see study note on 1:13.

• A gold crown is a symbol of status or power, clearly distinguishing Jesus from the angels (see 4:4 ^yh; 6:2 ^yi; 9:7 ^yj; 12:3 ^yk; 13:1 ^yl).

• The sharp sickle is symbolic of God’s harvest of judgment (see 14:17-18 ^ym; see also Jer 51:33 ^yn; Hos 6:11 ^yo; Mic 4:12-13 ^yp).
Summary for Rev 14:15-18: 14:15-18 ^yq The Temple and the altar represent God’s presence (see 9:13 ^yr; 11:19 ^ys; 16:7 ^yt).
Summary for Rev 14:18-20: 14:18-20 ^yu The ripe ... grapes (see Amos 8:2 ^yv) that are trampled in the winepress emphasize God’s power to judge (see Rev 19:15 ^yw; Joel 3:13 ^yx).

• Winepresses were built outside cities and towns; here, the city is Jerusalem. The bloody river of death stretched about 180 miles. God’s enemies stand no chance when the Son of Man comes in judgment. The carnage here is closely linked with the final battle in Rev 19:17-21 ^yy; God is just and fair in giving people exactly what they deserve (see 16:5-7 ^yz).

‏ Revelation of John 15

Summary for Rev 15:1-8: 15:1–16:21 ^za The third and final cycle of seven judgments (see study note on 6:1–16:21) is introduced with a vision of God’s victorious people singing a hymn of praise (15:2-4 ^zb). Then a scene of the Temple is presented (15:5-8 ^zc), from which angels emerge bearing the bowls of God’s judgment upon the earth (16:1-21 ^zd). 15:1 ^ze This cycle of seven last plagues (15:1–16:21 ^zf) brings God’s wrath against his enemies to completion (see 16:17 ^zg; Amos 1–2 ^zh; Rom 1:18–2:16 ^zi). Revelation returns later to the subjects of God’s wrath (Rev 19:15-21 ^zj).
15:2 ^zk The glass sea mixed with fire symbolizes victory through testing. Those who had been victorious over the beast (see 13:1-8 ^zl, 15-18 ^zm) hold harps that represent ultimate peace. Their place on the glass sea (cp. 4:6 ^zn) symbolizes their endurance in the fire of persecution (cp. Ps 66:12 ^zo; Isa 43:2 ^zp; Dan 3:8-30 ^zq).
Summary for Rev 15:3-4: 15:3-4 ^zr The song of Moses and the Lamb signifies that God’s will is united in the old and new covenants. 15:3 ^zs The Lord God, the Almighty (see also 1:8 ^zt; 4:8 ^zu; 11:17 ^zv; 16:7 ^zw; 19:6 ^zx; 21:22 ^zy): For persecuted Christians, the message that God is all-powerful provides great comfort and security.

• The truth that God is also just and true is the foundation of human integrity in the midst of a confused, unjust, and dishonest world.

• God is the supreme, universal King of the nations, not a localized deity attached to one nation or to a human monarch with limited authority.
15:4 ^zz Who will not fear . . . and glorify your name? This rhetorical question (cp. Jer 10:7 ^aaa) assumes that only a fool would fail to do so (cp. Rev 14:7 ^aab; 16:9 ^aac; see Pss 14:1 ^aad; 53:1 ^aae).

• God alone is holy: See Rev 16:5 ^aaf; Lev 11:44 ^aag; 1 Pet 1:16 ^aah. God’s holiness is the basis for our worship and salvation.

• All nations will ... worship: Some will be forced to acknowledge God (cp. Phil 2:10-11 ^aai), but all will recognize that God’s deeds and judgments have been revealed and are righteous and just.
Summary for Rev 15:5-6: 15:5-6 ^aaj God’s Tabernacle implies God’s presence (see John 1:14 ^aak); even the plagues have their source in God’s presence. Christ’s sacrifice (Matt 27:51 ^aal; Mark 15:38 ^aam; Heb 6:19-20 ^aan; 10:19-20 ^aao) removed the veil between God and humanity (see Exod 26:31-35 ^aap; Lev 16 ^aaq). Now those who do not belong to Christ experience the full force of God’s presence (see Rev 20:11-15 ^aar; Isa 13:4-12 ^aas; Zeph 2:1-3 ^aat; Mal 3:2-3 ^aau).

• white linen: Linen, a symbol of purity, was also worn by the priests when performing their duties (see Exod 28:39-43 ^aav; Lev 16:4 ^aaw, 23 ^aax; see also Ezek 9:2-3 ^aay; Dan 12:6-7 ^aaz). The function of these angels is not intercession; they are agents of judgment. The linen therefore represents the purity and justice of God’s judgment.

• The gold sashes across their chests probably symbolize their divine mission as ministers of justice on God’s behalf (cp. Rev 1:13 ^aba).
15:7 ^abb the four living beings: See 4:6-8 ^abc.

• a gold bowl: These bowls are probably like the offering pans that were used in ancient worship (see Exod 37:16 ^abd).
15:8 ^abe The Temple was filled with smoke as a symbol of God’s glory and power (Isa 6:4 ^abf; see Exod 19:16-18 ^abg; 40:34-35 ^abh; 1 Kgs 8:10-13 ^abi).

‏ Revelation of John 16

Summary for Rev 16:1-21: 16:1-21 ^abj These seven bowls filled with God’s wrath represent the final judgments on the world; with the seventh bowl, “It is finished!” is shouted from God’s throne (16:17 ^abk; cp. John 19:30 ^abl). 16:1 ^abm The mighty voice probably belongs to God (also in 6:6 ^abn; 9:13 ^abo; 16:17 ^abp; 18:4 ^abq; 19:5 ^abr; see Isa 66:6 ^abs).
16:2 ^abt The malignant sores are reminiscent of the sixth plague of Egypt (Exod 9:9-11 ^abu).

• mark of the beast: See Rev 13:13-17 ^abv; 14:9-10 ^abw.
Summary for Rev 16:3-4: 16:3-4 ^abx The plagues of the second and third bowls are similar to the first plague of Egypt (Exod 7:17-21 ^aby). Perhaps John had in mind that much of Rome’s food and wealth came by sea. After Julius Caesar rid the sea of pirates, shipping became Rome’s lifeblood. Its end would mean economic death for the empire (see Rev 18:17-19 ^abz).
Summary for Rev 16:5-6: 16:5-6 ^aca the angel who had authority over all water: Angels and archangels are portrayed as having special roles in the hierarchy of heaven (see Dan 8:16 ^acb; 9:21 ^acc; 10:13 ^acd, 21 ^ace; 12:1 ^acf; Luke 1:19 ^acg, 26 ^ach; see also 1 Enoch 66:1-2). This angel confirms these judgments as coming from God, who is both just and holy.
16:6 ^aci Punishment of God’s enemies is a just reward because they killed God’s holy people and prophets. Because they have shed ... blood, they must drink ... blood. The principle of lex talionis (the law of retribution), the basis of Roman and Jewish jurisprudence, means that God is completely just in judging and rewarding people on the basis of what they have done (see 2:23 ^acj; 11:18 ^ack; 14:13 ^acl; 18:6 ^acm; 20:12 ^acn, 13 ^aco; 22:12 ^acp).
16:7 ^acq I heard a voice from the altar: The antiphonal response to the angel’s proclamation (16:5-6 ^acr) affirms God’s authority and justice. This doxology in the midst of judgment reminds persecuted Christians that God truly cares about his suffering servants and fulfills his own purpose in everything.
Summary for Rev 16:8-9: 16:8-9 ^acs The fourth ... bowl is unlike any of the plagues of Egypt or the earlier seals or trumpets.

• Everyone was burned: Contrast 7:16 ^act. Yet the recipients of this judgment refused to repent or give God glory (see 9:20-21 ^acu; 16:11 ^acv; cp. 14:6-7 ^acw); they even cursed the name of God.
Summary for Rev 16:10-11: 16:10-11 ^acx the throne of the beast: John might be alluding to Rome, the political power of his time. Built on seven hills (17:9 ^acy), Rome’s empire spanned the sea (13:1 ^acz) and ruled the world (13:7 ^ada).

• plunged into darkness: Similar to the ninth plague of Egypt (Exod 10:22 ^adb) and to the fourth trumpet (Rev 8:12 ^adc).

• ground their teeth [literally gnawed their tongues] . . . cursed the God of heaven: Both pain and hostility motivated these responses to punishment (cp. Matt 8:12 ^add; 13:42 ^ade, 50 ^adf; 22:13 ^adg; 24:51 ^adh; 25:30 ^adi; Luke 13:28 ^adj).
16:12 ^adk The Euphrates, the largest river in Mesopotamia, stood between Babylon and Israel and formed the eastern boundary of the Roman Empire. If it dried up, it would allow kings from the east to move their armies westward (cp. 9:13-16 ^adl). From John’s perspective as an ancient Jewish writer, these armies would always be identified with Mesopotamia rather than with countries farther east such as China or India.
Summary for Rev 16:13-14: 16:13-14 ^adm Three agents of deceit, evil spirits in the form of frogs, represent the demonic role of the evil trinity. Although the powers of evil battle against the Lord, it is God the Almighty, not any evil power, who is in control.
16:15 ^adn Readers are warned to look because the Lord will come as unexpectedly as a thief (see also 3:3 ^ado; Matt 24:43 ^adp; 25:13 ^adq; 1 Thes 5:2 ^adr; 2 Pet 3:10 ^ads). Being ready for his coming requires preparation; those who are not prepared will not have the proper clothing and will find themselves naked (see Matt 22:11-13 ^adt). This imagery recalls the two failing churches: lifeless Sardis, which is told to “wake up” (Rev 3:2 ^adu), and lukewarm Laodicea, which is advised to obtain proper clothing (3:18 ^adv).
16:16 ^adw The name Armageddon (or Harmagedon) is probably derived from Hebrew har (“mountain,” “hill”) plus Megiddo, which was one of the three cities fortified by Solomon along with Gezer in the south and Hazor in the north (1 Kgs 9:15 ^adx). The fortress of Megiddo stood on a hill in the largest pass through the Carmel range, strategically guarding the Jezreel Valley. The city was situated on the Via Maris, the main highway between Egypt and Mesopotamia. Many armies used this route, and the site became known as a bloody battlefield. It was here, for instance, that Pharaoh Neco, on his way to fight the Assyrians, killed Josiah (2 Kgs 23:29 ^ady). Armageddon thus became a symbolic term epitomizing the final conflict between God and the forces of evil.
16:17 ^adz When the seventh ... bowl is poured out, an unexpected event occurs. The enemies of God had assembled themselves for battle, but when the decisive moment arrives, instead of the battle comes the shout, “It is finished!” Jesus uttered these same words from the cross when he had finished his work (John 19:30 ^aea). No one can ultimately fight God. Therefore, this scene pictures an end to rebellion against God. What remains are various descriptions of the end.
Summary for Rev 16:18-20: 16:18-20 ^aeb The catastrophic events of this judgment scene recapitulate the scenes portraying the destruction of the world (6:12-14 ^aec; 11:13 ^aed). They also foreshadow the final judgment (20:11-15 ^aee) when the earth will be dismantled to make way for the new creation (21:1 ^aef; cp. Isa 45:2 ^aeg; Rom 8:19-22 ^aeh).
16:21 ^aei Despite the severity of these plagues, the people of the world again cursed God rather than recognizing his reason for the judgments (see 9:20 ^aej; 16:9 ^aek, 11 ^ael).

• The terrible hailstorm is a reminder of the seventh plague on Egypt (Exod 9:23-24 ^aem).